Topic 2

Instructional Design

 Contents 

Overview

            Source materials for this topic

Introduction to instructional design

What is instructional design?

            Why use instructional design?

Principles of instructional design

Preliminary considerations 

Defining tasks

Task analysis

Structuring the lesson

            During the lesson

Models of instructional design

            What do instructional designers do?

            Tasks of an instructional designer

            Constructivist approaches to instructional design

            Should you use existing materials?

Checklists for identifying effective instruction

Practice exercise

            Criteria for effective instruction

 1. Overview 

These materials support a discussion on the topic of effective teaching, whether that teaching happens face-to-face or at a distance. The characteristics of good teaching are identified; then the roles of the instructional designer are discussed. These characteristics of good teaching and effective instructional design are generalised to include all good courses and the criteria for identifying and designing them:

·       clear and appropriate learning objectives;

·       knowledge of target audience;

·       appropriate sequencing and segmentation;

·       interactivity;

·       feedback;

·       motivation;

·       transferability of skills;

·       appropriate media;

·       formal and informal assessment; and

·       administrative requirements.

These criteria are only introduced at this stage. They are later discussed in considerable more detail as separate topics in this kit.

A practice exercise in which participants assess sample course materials completes the discussion of this topic.

1.1 Source materials for this topic

Jackling, N. Weaving my own design. In M. Parer (ed.), Development, design, and distance education. Churchill, Australia: Centre for Distance Education, Monash University, 1989.

Morgan, A. Improving your students’ learning. London: Kogan Page, 1993.

Parer, M. Development, design, and distance education. Churchill, Australia: Centre for Distance Learning, Monash University, 1989.

Parer, M. Developing open courses. Churchill, Australia: Centre for Distance Learning, Monash University, 1993.

Rowntree, D. Preparing materials for open, distance, and flexible learning. London: Kogan Page, 1994.

 2. Introduction to instructional design 

In describing some models of instructional design, we begin by describing some of the tasks performed and roles played by the instructional designer.

2.1 What is instructional design?

Instructional design is a systematic approach to facilitating learning by

·       identifying the purposes of the learning, especially learning objectives;

·       developing the learning experiences necessary to achieve those purposes;

·       evaluating the effectiveness of those learning experiences in achieving the purposes; and

·       improving the learning experiences, in the light of evaluation, so as to better achieve the purposes.

2.2 Why use instructional design?

One way of explaining why instructional design is of particular importance in open and distance learning is to describe some of the differences between teaching in conventional face-to-face settings and teaching at a distance.

In conventional face-to-face settings

Teachers have the ability to

·       decide which methods and media to use; and

·       vary the methods and strategies depending upon the learners’ needs.

In open and distance learning

Thorough preplanning is essential because

·       ‘how to teach’ becomes crucial to the success of the entire system;

·       learning materials are prepared in advance;

·       media to support those materials are pre-selected; and

·       changes to materials cannot be conveniently incorporated mid-session.

Instructional design is precisely the necessary preplanning activity.

Discussion: This is an opportune moment for an initial discussion of the differences between learning primarily face-to-face and learning primarily at a distance.

 3. Principles of instructional design 

Sound instructional design is simply good teaching. Good teachers tend to follow similar guidelines. Do your participants agree with the following list?

3.1 Preliminary considerations

Before they begin a lesson, good teachers consider:

·       the likely abilities of their learners;

·       their learners’ level of education;

·       their present level of knowledge;

·       their social and cultural background; and

·       their motivation and interest.

3.2 Defining tasks

On that basis, good teachers then define:

·       their learners’ ultimate overall task;

·       the major components of this task;

·       the conditions under which each component task will be performed; and

·       the level of performance that is desired for each task.

3.3 Task analysis

Good teachers then analyse each component task:

·       deleting the tasks that  learners can perform already;

·       selecting the most important and critical tasks; and

·       stating what learners will be able to do as a result of the lesson.

3.4 Structuring the lesson

For a lesson to be effective, the teacher should:

·       share the objectives of the lesson with the learners; and

·       teach in logical order, using a lesson outline like the following.

Sample Lesson Outline

A. Introduction       

      1. issue materials

      2. review previos learning

      3. provide motivation, making this

            a. brief
            b. to the point
            c. stimulating (for example, posing a question)
B. Main body of lesson
      1. provide information
      2. use small steps
      3. break frequently for questions and comments
      4. use teaching aids
            a. to illustrate
            b. to simplify
            c. to provide variation
            d. to provide opportunities for practice and feedback
            e. to summarise
            f. to provide opportunities for future reference
      5. make contingency plans for
            a. what to do with any extra time
            b. which items are essential if time becomes short
C. Conclusion
     1. deal with difficult points
     2. summarise
     3. mention the content and relevance of next lesson
     4. test
           a. in class
                 i. put questions to class as whole
                ii. be clear and precise
               iii. require a brief answer
               iv. be encouraging
                v. avoid embarrassing learners
          b. after class, evaluate whether
                i. you ought to change anything about the way you taught the
                   lesson
               ii. you achieved what you set out to achieve

3.5 During the lesson

While teaching, good teachers remember to:

·       communicate clearly;

·       organise well;

·       link past and present learning;

·       encourage learners to participate;

·       provide practice and opportunities for practice;

·       avoid monotony;

·       use emphasis;

·       demonstrate their own interest;

·       use teaching aids effectively;

·       repeat important points;

·       ask questions; and

·       remain flexible.

Discussion: Do your participants agree with this list? At what points do these guidelines differ when they are applied to open and distance learning?

 4. Models of instructional design 

4.1 What do instructional designers do?

The instructional designer works in collaboration with the subject specialist to design materials that facilitate learning of the subject matter. (This material is based on Noel Jackling’s article, ‘Weaving my own design’, in M. Parer (ed.), Development, design, and distance education  (1989).)

An instructional designer is advised to approach the subject specialist in the following ways:

·       regard the subject specialist an expert in the subject matter;

·       listen to what the subject specialist has to say;

·       provide feedback to the subject specialist (for example, ‘If I were a student my response would be...’);

·       seek clarification;

·       encourage new ideas (for example,  ‘Have you considered...?’);

·       ask the subject specialist, ‘What are your desired outcomes?’;

·       draw out the traditional teaching wisdom from a specific discipline and respect it; and

·       keep as a paramount concern what is best for the learner.

Approaches an instructional designer is not advised to take with the subject specialist:

·       outside consultant;

·       process expert;

·       paternalist (spoon-feeding the subject specialist)

·       colonialist (encouraging the subject specialist but never giving her independence);

·       proselytiser (preaching values to the subject specialist);

·       instructor (regarding the subject specialist as a pupil);

·       remedier of subject specialist defects;

·       prescriber of teaching methods for particular subject areas; and

·       client-centred counsellor.

4.2 Tasks of an instructional designer

The instructional designer works as a ‘surrogate learner’, asking the subject matter expert the kinds of questions a student would ask, for example:

·       Do I understand or am I confused?

·       Is there an ambiguity?

·       Is there a clear learning path?

·       Where have I come from?

·       Where might I be going to?

·       Am I being transformed from naïve learner to expert?

·       Would an example help me understand?

·       Would an exercise help me learn by doing?

·       Do I consider that the writer is writing for me personally, or is the writer being impersonal and needlessly ‘academic’?

·       Am I put off the whole subject by the difficulty of the first item of assessment?

·       Am I put off by the style of writing or by the use of uncommon words or unduly long sentences? Can what is being said be said more simply?

·       Am I getting cues as to what the really important parts are?

·       Is the structure apparent? Have advance organisers been signposted?

4.3 Constructivist approaches to instructional design

Most textbooks on instructional design deal with ‘objectivist’ approaches to instructional design, which are concerned primarily with the transmission of knowledge and with facilitating the process of learning that knowledge.

In contrast, constructivist approaches to instructional design put the learners and the knowledge they bring to the learning situation at the centre of the instructional design enterprise. These approaches are based on the following principles:

·       Learners are a legitimate source of knowledge. Learners are encouraged to learn to trust themselves and their knowledge.

·       Learning is not a passive exercise of absorbing knowledge (information) developed and transmitted by ‘experts’. Learners are encouraged to take control of and initiate their own learning.

·       Ambiguity and contradiction are not problematic. They can be helpful in pushing us toward a problem-solving, or problem-posing, approach to learning.

·       Systematic reflection is an essential activity if personal experience is to facilitate a deeper understanding.

Discussion: Discuss examples of effective collaboration between instructional designers and subject specialists from your own experience and that of your participants.

4.4 Should you use existing materials?

Strategies for materials

Course materials in open and distance learning programmes can be provided in three ways:

·       adopt existing materials;

·       adapt existing materials; or

·       create original materials.

These strategies are set out in the tables on the following pages, together with the benefits they offer, their limitations, and other factors that might affect decision-making. These strategies form a continuum, with adoption at one end, creation at the other, and adaptation somewhere in the middle.

Example: Most courses that are created from the ‘ground up’ make use of some existing materials, such as textbooks or video cassettes. And almost all courses that are ‘adopted’ undergo some degree of adaptation.

Adoption Strategies for Providing Course Materials in Distance Education:

Strategy	Benefits	Challenges	Other factors
adopting existing materials	·       may be less costly ·       less time consuming ·       can provide model ·       no need to pre-test ·       errors already eliminated ·       labour saving, less stressful for staff ·       reduces lead-in time ·       source of new ideas ·       opportunities for collaboration ·       can provide a quality not otherwise possible	·       may not be relevant to needs ·       may not be suitable culturally, contextually ·       testing for fit may be needed ·       may kill creativity at local level ·       deprives local staff of ownership ·       may omit crucial content areas ·       may go out of print while you still need copies ·       may have hidden costs, for example, support structure ·       may promote dependency ·       may push planners into premature start	·       status and prestige ·       ‘not invented here’ syndrome ·       cost to purchase or lease compared with ‘ground-up’ production

 Adaptation Strategies for Providing Course Materials in Distance Education:

Strategy	Benefits	Challenges	Other factors
adapting existing materials	·       gives a headstart, reduces lead time ·       gives models and ideas ·       may be easy to convert ·       can select from available materials ·       cost-saving ·       can improve by adding components ·       can increase appropriateness ·       can update ·       can improve writers’ skills without having to produce whole course	·       expert knowledge still needed ·       may reduce quality by altering ·       may be self-defeating because of costs and time ·       does less for developing local capacity ·       may not assist in developing coherent programme ·       levels may not match	·       accreditation issues ·       control and ownership of course ·       issues of copyright ·       credibility of provider

Creation Strategies for Providing Course Materials in Distance Education

Strategy	Benefits	Challenges	Other factors
creating original materials	·       likely to fit target audience more closely ·       more likely to be culturally relevant ·       will be up-to-date ·       will be unique ·       will build local capacity and self-confidence ·       will be easier to modify if necessary	·       the most expensive option ·       lead-in time is longer ·       may put high stress on developers ·       amount of work may be underestimated ·       needs trained and skilled staff ·       need to build up capacity and expertise ·       need to persuade people it is worth doing ·       needs adequate resources	·       start-up costs ·       status of enterprise, political agenda

 5. Checklists for identifying instruction 

The criteria for creating effective course materials apply whether courses are being taught face-to-face in the classroom or at a distance. Here is a checklist of questions to ask of any course, regardless of the mode in which it is taught.

Checklist for Identifying Effective Instruction

Have you clearly defined your learning objectives?

q       Are you and your learners clear about where this session of instruction fits into the overall course?

q       Are you and your learners clear about what they are expected to have learned and what they are expected to be able to do once they have completed this session of instruction?

q       Have you identified the conditions under which learners will be expected to perform the task? For example, on an examination, in their practice exercise, or in their workplace.

q       Have you identified the level at which they will be expected to perform the task? With no errors (for example, as with pharmacy students learning to count tablets)? At specified levels (for example, what is required to pass)?

Have you assessed learners’ needs and designed the instruction with the characteristics and needs of your learners in mind?

q       What skills, knowledge, and attitudes do your learners bring to the course?

q       What features of their social, cultural, and language background might affect their learning?

q       Why are they taking this course? Out of interest? Or because they have to pass it in order to continue in their programme?

Have you sequenced and segmented the instruction appropriately?

q       Have you dealt with the material in logical order (for example, simple to complex, concrete to abstract, big picture to finer details)?

q       Have you used sufficient advance organisers, to help learners tie what they have already learned to what they will be learning?

q       Have you divided the readings and other activities into segments of about equal size?

q       Is the size of each segment appropriate to learners’ likely attention span?

Have you prompted learners to interact with the material?

q       Do you ask questions frequently, and give learners space in the materials in which to write their answers?

q       Do you ask them to pause and reflect on their own experience?

q       Do you give them opportunities to practise the skill they are being taught?

q       Do you ask them to recall what they have recently worked through?

q       Do you suggest they talk with someone about an issue that has been raised, for example, with a colleague, a family member, or their tutor?

Do you provide learners with frequent feedback on how effectively they are comprehending the material or performing some skill?

q       Do you provide sample answers to the questions you ask?

q       Do you suggest places they can find the answers themselves?

q       Do you suggest people they can talk to in order to find the answers?

q       Do you let them know that this is a question that has many possible answers, so that they will not be frustrated by not being given an answer?

Do you provide ways of motivating learners to keep going in the course?

q       Do you have them complete an exercise or assignment early on in the course at which they are likely to succeed, to give them confidence and encourage them to keep going?

q       Do you make constructive comments on their work that reward what they have done well and specify the ways in which they could improve?

q       Do you encourage them to relate what they are doing in the course to their daily lives, so that it has some relevance and meaning for them?

q       Do you keep the workload reasonable, so that they can actually accomplish it during the time they were told they should have available for this work?

Do you help learners identify and build on their existing skills and knowledge, so that they can transfer them to and use them in this new context?

q       Do you build into the course activities that help learners identify what they already know and what they already can do, in relation to the subject matter you are teaching them (for example, pre-tests, diagnostic tests, reviews of past learning)?

q       Do you encourage learners to look for opportunities to apply the skills and knowledge they are acquiring to problems and situations outside the course?

Do you provide the course material in a medium or media that is appropriate to the subject matter, and to the learners’ skills in using that medium?

q       Do you provide a variety of media where possible, so that learners can benefit from both heard and seen material, for example?

q       A picture can be worth a thousand words, as they say. Do you use illustrations, line drawings, cartoons, and other visuals, to help get your points across?

q       Do you take into account that learners may have low reading skills in dealing with print, for example, or that they may need to learn to use a particular piece of computer software in order to participate effectively in a computer conference?

q       Are your print materials lively and readable? Are your audio and video materials well scripted?

Do you provide timely and appropriate opportunities for learners to assess how well they are comprehending the materials?

q       Do you provide self-assessment questions in each unit, with appropriate feedback, so that learners can check their comprehension?

q       Do you provide opportunities for learners to get feedback from others on their progress, for example, from tutor-marked assignments?

q       Do the assignments in the course give learners an opportunity to practise skills or apply knowledge that is directly related to the learning objectives?

q       Do the assignments enable learners to practise and build the skills they are going to need in order to sit the examination?

Do you have your administrative processes in order?

q       Do learners actually get their materials at the time they need them?

q       Do they receive all the materials they need in order to complete the course?

q       If not, do they have ready access to the remaining materials they need?

q       Do learners know who to contact if they have a problem?

q       Do they know how many assignments they are required to complete? When they are required to do them? How long they need to be? Where to send them?

q       Do they know where and when the examination is being held? How long it will be? What form it will take? What kinds of questions to prepare for?

q       Are learners’ queries answered promptly? Are their assignments graded and returned quickly?

 6. Practice exercise 

6.1 Criteria for effective instruction

Instructions: Provide participants with samples of course materials that are appropriate to their contexts. (If you do not have ready access to sample course materials, COL can assist you to locate appropriate packages.) Ask participants to assess the extent to which the materials meet the criteria set out in this session. This task can be divided up among the participants, one criterion per person, two or three criteria per small group, and so on. The last criterion (administrative requirements)

cannot be dealt with in this way, but the group could be prompted to engage in a general discussion of the kinds of administrative problems they encounter in delivering instruction effectively to learners.

Timeframe: Allow participants up to an hour to review the sample materials, depending on how extensive they are and how large you make your small groups. Add another 15 minutes to the total time for a general discussion of their findings.

Materials: You will need enough samples of course material to supply one set per small group.