Topic 6

Developing a Study Guide

 

 Contents 

Overview

Source materials for this topic

An introduction to study guides

What is a study guide?

Why write a study guide?

Planning media and tutorial support

Guidelines

Tutoring

Content through activities

What is an activities approach?

Types of activities

Structuring the study guide

Basic structure

Visual aids and signposts

Writing to be read and understood

Managing the concept load

Choosing an appropriate style

Teaching with graphics and pictures

Graphic devices

Guidelines

Making your text visually appealing and usable

Page size

Layout and house style

Study guide visuals checklist

Writer’s checklist

Practice exercise

            Critiquing a study guide

 

 1. Overview 

These materials support a discussion on the topic of developing study guides for open and distance learning.

1.1 Source materials for this topic

Hartley, J. Designing instructional text, 3rd ed. London: Kogan Page, 1994.

Jenkins, J. Course development: a manual for editors of distance-teaching materials. 2nd ed. Cambridge: International Extension College, 1987.

Kember, D. Writing study guides. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services Ltd., 1991.

Lockwood, F. Activities in self-instructional texts. London: Kogan Page, 1992.

Lockwood, F. (ed.). Materials production in open and distance learning. London: Paul Chapman, 1994.

Parer, M. Textual design and student learning, 2nd ed. Churchill, Australia: Centre for Distance Learning, Monash University, 1995.

Rowntree, D. Teaching through self-instruction. Rev. ed. London: Kogan Page, 1990.

 2. An introduction to study guides 

The print materials to be included in a package of learning materials can be prepared using a number of approaches, including the following:

·       interactive textbooks: course books that are newly created, from the ground up, using a dialogue approach that incorporates a great many activities for the learner to engage in;

·       handbooks: at the other end of the continuum, handbooks provide information to learners that supplements print or other materials (for example, video) that have been purchased or leased from elsewhere but which need some explanatory notes to fit them to the context of the user institution; and

·       study guides: somewhere in the middle of the continuum, more substantial than handbooks but less labour intensive than interactive textbooks, since they are used in conjunction with readers of collected articles, set texts, audio cassettes, video cassettes, and broadcast programmes. They are probably the most commonly produced print materials for course packages.

2.1 What is a study guide?

A study guide is part of a self-instructional package. It will probably contain some of the content of the course, but not the main bulk. The bulk of the content comes from textbooks, a collection of readings, audio cassettes, video cassettes, broadcast television and radio, and so on.

A useful metaphor is that the study guide is a tutor sitting alongside a learner who is reading, watching, or listening to the course materials. The study guide should do all the things a tutor might do in this situation.

2.2 Why write a study guide?

You need to decide between developing a self-contained package or producing a study guide to an existing source of content.

Self-contained courses

A self-contained course contains all the content or subject matter as well as the features of self-instructional courses. To produce a self-contained course you have to write everything that would go in a textbook as well as all the activities that would turn it into a tutorial in print.

Advantages

·         The content can be tailored precisely to your course.

·         Content, examples, and case studies can be chosen that are appropriate for your local situation.

·         Everything the learner needs is under your control.

Disadvantages

·         Developing a self-contained package of high quality can take 50 hours per hour of learner learning time.

·         The expertise of textbook writers is not always easy to match.

·         The production standard of textbooks is difficult to match.

·         In a self-contained course, produced by an individual, it is difficult to do justice to more than one viewpoint.

Discussion: Draw examples of appropriate uses of self-contained courses from your own and your participants’ experience.

Study guides

The main source of content for study guides comes from other sources. The study guide may also include some content if the writer feels that the source materials do not fully cover some subject areas.

Advantages

·         Fewer resources are needed to develop a study guide.

·         The best available source materials can be selected.

·         By using a variety of sources you can include a variety of opinions and alternative explanations.

·         You can take advantage of source materials with high production values.

Disadvantages

·         You are unlikely to find sources of content that precisely match your curriculum.

·         Textbooks and other source materials can change editions or go out of print, necessitating a complete revision of your study guide.

·         The content of the source materials may be oriented to learners in different jobs, contexts, or countries to those of your own learners.

·         Books and cassettes must be bought by the learner or supplied by you.

·         Copyright permission should normally be obtained on all material included in study guides. This is a time consuming process and some copyright holders charge a fee.

Discussion: It would be helpful at this point to have at least one example each of a self-contained course and a study-guide type course to illustrate what is meant by the terms.

 3. Planning media and tutorial support 

Discussion: It is useful at this point to have some sample study guides available to illustrate ways in which guides can integrate tutorial approaches and activities.

3.1 Guidelines

Unless media and tutorial support activities are planned at an early stage they are unlikely to be fully integrated into the course. In planning a study guide package you must make two media decisions:

·         the media to use for the source of content; and

·         the media to use for the study guide.

Study guides are nearly always published as print materials. A few are wholly or partly on audio cassettes, and for courses that draw their source material primarily from the Internet, the study guides will also be available online.

The choice of media is wider for the source of content. You can write study guides to print material or to audio, video, and computer programmes.

The features of various media will be discussed in greater detail as a later topic.

3.2 Tutoring

Tutorials take several forms:

·         face-to-face meetings;

·         teleconferences;

·         one-to-one telephone conversations;

·         e-mail;

·         computer conferences; and

·         postal communication.

A wide variety of activities can be planned, depending on the medium used:

·         help with difficulties;

·         working through pre-set problems;

·         discussion of defined issues;

·         debate on set topic;

·         presentation of seminar papers given by learners;

·         discussion of case studies;

·         help with project work; and

·         practical work.

It is essential to plan your tutorial approach before writing your study guide, since you will want to incorporate tutorial activities into learners’ work as it progresses. 

 4. Content through activities 

4.1 What is an activities approach?

The main role of a study guide is to help learners master the content that has been selected. This help is provided through a series of activities.

Why use an activities approach? Primarily because whatever instruction is provided learners will only learn if they actively engage the presented material. This means interspersing the text material with prompts to action of some kind.

The following table indicates some of the ways in which this activities approach will make your study guide look different from a typical textbook.

Contrasting Textbooks and Study Guides

Textbook

Study Guide

·       one-way communication

·       two-way communication

·       learner is passive

·       learner is actively involved

·       structure is hidden

·       learner is aware of structure

·       self-directed learning

·       learner is guided

·       lecture

·       dialogue

·       impersonal

·       friendly and encouraging

·       little application of knowledge and skills

·       learner applies new knowledge and skills

·       activities only at end of chapters

·       activities throughout the text

·       content in chapters or large blocks

·       content divided into small sections

·       no assignments

·       assignment for self or others’ assessment

·       no feedback

·       feedback provided on learner’s progress

4.2 Types of activities

Using different types of activities will make your study guide more interesting.

Activities can be classified according to:

·         action needed to arrive at response;

·         type of response demanded; and

·         level of difficulty (or cognitive level).

Kinds of activities

Examples of the kinds of activities learners may be asked to undertake include:

·         reflecting on reading;

·         consulting dictionary;

·         reading a piece of text;

·         reflecting on experience;

·         listening to a tape;

·         performing a calculation;

·         carrying out practical work;

·         looking at a paragraph;

·         describing personal experiences;

·         examining experiment results; and

·         observing aspects of learners’ own surroundings.

Types of responses requested

As to the type of response requested, examples include:

·         writing answer in the margin;

·         writing answer in the box;

·         writing answer in notebook;

·         making a summary;

·         underlining phrases or statements;

·         ticking boxes;

·         filling in or completing a table or chart;

·         completing a crossword puzzle;

·         making glossaries;

·         drawing a diagram;

·         asking questions of friends or colleagues;

·         repeating aloud a phrase on audio cassette; and

·         answering aloud a question on audio cassette.

Levels of difficulty

Levels of difficulty or cognition include:

·         knowledge (remembering something previously encountered);

·         comprehension (understanding without relating to other situations);

·         application (using abstractions in concrete situations);

·         analysis (breaking down into parts to clarify organisation);

·         synthesis (putting elements into a whole); and

·         evaluation (judging value for given purpose).

 

 5. Structuring the study guide 

Discussion: Again, it is most useful to have some sample study guides available for demonstrating the ways in which they have been structured.

5.1 Basic structure

If you are producing your study guide in print form, here is a typical way of breaking it down into components that learners can readily deal with:


Course

Ż

Block

Ż

Unit

Ż

Introduction or overview

Ż

Sections

Ż

Summary and conclusions

Ż

Glossary

Ż

References

Ż

Visual aids and signposts

Course

Courses come in all shapes and sizes.

The term course can apply to three or four related lessons or sessions or to a whole degree programme lasting several years. Essentially, we are talking about a sequence of structured learning with a time interval between each session and the next. It may stand on its own, or be part of a programme of studies leading to formal qualification.

You will know what counts as a course in your own context.

Block

If courses are very large, say fifteen or sixteen units, they are frequently broken up into ‘blocks’ or approximately equal size.

Blocks are clusters of units that cohere in some way around a particular topic or theme. For example, it might make sense to break up a course on open and distance learning that has sixteen units into four blocks of four units each: introduction to open and distance learning, patterns and variations, promise and performance, and problems and issues.

Each block will have a brief introduction to orient the learner to what is to come.

Clustering units in this way provides learners with manageable and meaningful targets. Making one’s way through a block of the course mentioned above, for example, means completing one quarter of the course.

Subdividing into blocks only makes sense if the units cohere in some meaningful way.

Unit

We use the term unit to describe a portion of a distance-teaching text that is distinct from other portions.

Units can be separated by topic, or by the time allowed for studying the material, or by a combination of both.

Whatever kind of distinction is used, each unit must be self-contained.

It should contain

·         orientation for the learner;

·         explanations of the topics covered; and

·         exercises and activities.

Introduction or overview

The elements needed for a unit introduction include the following.

·      Aims: A general statement of purpose and overall direction.

·      Introduction: An outline or an overview describing the main concepts to be discussed, or simply a contents list. Its function is to attract learner’s interest and focus attention. Introduction and aims may sometimes be within the same paragraph. The introduction may often indicate how the content of the present unit relates to others in the course.

·      Study data: Often learners will need a particular book or equipment for one particular unit. They need to know this before they settle down to work. Some information is often presented in a list or displayed in a frame. When units vary in length, guidance on timing is also needed.

·      Learning outcomes: A description of learning outcomes will help learners understand what to expect. This is the place for your formal list of objectives. If the list is too long, however (say, more than ten) learners may be intimidated or discouraged. You might want to compress them, or to split the objectives so that two or three of them head each subsection of your unit.

·      Orientation: Some orientation is included in the description of aims. In addition, learners may need to know certain facts or skills before they begin the unit, and these can be reviewed here, or a preliminary test can be provided to help individuals know where to concentrate their efforts.

Sections

Even one study unit is normally too much material for a learner to handle readily. Learners will find it helpful to have each unit broken down into smaller sections, which again can be broken down by topic, by length of time for completion, or some combination of both.

Sections can be organised in a number of ways, according to the structure of the subject that is being presented and the learning outcomes that are anticipated. Here is a checklist of items that are useful to include in each section:

·         learning outcomes or objectives;

·         assigned reading, tape listening, or other activity;

·         commentary on the source material (adding to the material where required, connecting it to what has gone before, looking ahead);

·         an exercise of some kind to nudge the learner into active engagement (questions to be answered, blanks to be filled in);

·         feedback on the answers the learner has provided; and

·         summary of the material presented in the section, including checklists if appropriate.

Summary and conclusions

At the end of a unit, much like at the end of an essay, it is necessary to tie together the ideas that have been presented so as to leave learners with a coherent understanding of the material and the essential points to be remembered before they move on to the next unit.

Depending on the subject matter, you might want to include a checklist of important points for the learner to remember.

The end of the unit is also an appropriate place for a self-test or for an assignment that is to be completed and sent to the tutor for grading, so that learners can check their comprehension of the material.

Glossary

In subjects with specialised vocabulary, a glossary of terms used in the unit provides a helpful reference tool for learners. You may prefer to put a glossary for the entire course at the end of the course.

References

In time-honoured scholarly fashion, it is essential to provide a list of those works to which you have explicitly referred or which you have cited in the unit.

If any of your citations is especially lengthy, that is, more than a paragraph, you should probably seek copyright permission for using it.

You might also want to provide a supplementary materials list for learners who want to pursue some particular topic in more detail. That list should also contain information on where the materials in question can be obtained, however.

5.2 Visual aids and signposts

Use visual aids and signposts to guide learners through your study guide.

Headings

Make sure your headings are consistent and clearly differentiated from each other.

Example: Unit headings should be in a typeface different from section headings, and so on.

You can also use numbers and other devices to distinguish headings from each other.

Icons

Signpost the various activities you are asking learners to undertake by using devices like icons in the margins.

Examples: A pencil to indicate that learners are to write now; a book to indicate they are to turn to one of their set readings; a cassette to indicate they are to listen to an audio cassette; a television to indicate they are to watch a video; a big checkmark to indicate a checklist.

Boxes, shading, and italics

You may want to set off certain portions of your text, such as a ‘sidebar’ of additional information, in a box that is shaded differently from the rest of the page.

Or you may want to use a different typeface, such as italics, to provide feedback to the answers learners have provided to the questions they have been asked.

 6. Writing to be read and understood 

6.1 Managing the concept load

If you teach too much information at once, the learners will not learn it well. Managing the concept load therefore is one way to assist your learners to learn.

Three ways to manage the concept load follow.

Density of information

·       Start from the known; move to the unknown.

·       Introduce new concepts and words carefully.

·       Add a glossary at the end of the unit.

·       Make all concepts concrete by giving specific examples.

Succinctness and relevance of information

·       Distinguish between what must be learned and what is good or nice to learn.

·       Avoid rambling and getting off the point.

·       Make your text relevant by providing examples from the learners’ own experiences.

·       Make sure you include examples that refer to both men’s and women’s experiences.

Additional stimulation

·      Make your text stimulating and thought-provoking by adding questions and activities to think about and do.

Examples: A tape-recorded interview to listen to and reflect upon, two photographs to compare and contrast, a chart from which to seek data for answering a question, or instructions for making an item out of household materials that illustrates the principle being discussed.

6.2 Choosing an appropriate style

When writing open and distance learning materials you are taking the place of a teacher. Therefore it is important to incorporate in the text all the stylistic features of good face-to-face teaching.

Here are some suggestions.

·         Use a conversational style.

·         Speak to your learners through your style.

·         Be friendly and encouraging.

·         Engage them in a dialogue with you.

·         Involve them in arguments.

·         Ask them to consider questions raised and to criticise and supplement what is being provided.

·         Use a personal style. Address learners as ‘you’ and refer to yourself as ‘I’.

·         Try to develop personal relations between yourself and the learners.

·         Let them search for further information and to apply their knowledge and skills.

·         Encourage them to raise further questions.

·         Match your style to the subject. For example,

if bookkeeping is your subject, then you will want lists and a step-by-step approach; or

if you are teaching philosophy, however, you will need to use a language that involves the reader in a process of thinking and reflection.

·         Use the appropriate language, as follows:

paragraphs should contain only one main idea or at most two related ones;

sentences should be short, not more than twenty words each;

use mostly main clauses since they are easier to follow than subordinate clauses;

avoid having too many clauses in a sentence;

avoid having several negatives in one sentence;

avoid passive verbs; use active, direct, lively verbs;

use familiar words whenever possible;

use concrete words;

convert abstract words into verbs;

explain all technical terms;

be sure all your words are used correctly;

use phrasal verbs and other idioms sparingly;

tailor what you write to the reading abilities of the learners; and

make your language inclusive of both genders; for example, use plural nouns and pronouns whenever possible.

·         Test for readability:

read your writing out loud, to see how conversational it sounds; and

use one of the readability tests; for example, Cloze test, Fog index.

 7. Teaching with graphics and pictures 

7.1 Graphic devices

We introduce a pictorial element into our teaching as soon as we use the printed page to convey something that could not be spoken with words.

To make your text pictorial you can use graphic devices and pictures like the following:

·      prose set out in such a way as to emphasise a point or make sure the reader’s attention is drawn to what is vital;

·      tables of words that highlight the relationships between ideas;

·      charts that do much the same thing;

·      tables that do it with figures;

·      symbols and icons to provide learners with cues;

·      textures and shadings; and

·      borders or ‘rules’ that may be used as ‘stoppers’.

Pictures include:

·      graphs and charts;

·      simple maps;

·       cartoons;

·      sketches;

·      photographs;

·      clip-art from your computer software;

·      reprints (with permission); and

·      adaptations from old, public domain engravings.

Use graphics and pictures for many reasons, including:

·      interest;

·      amusement;

·      expression;

·      persuasion;

·      illustration;

·      description;

·      explanation;

·      simplification;

·      quantification; and

·      problem-posing.

7.2 Guidelines

Bear in mind the following useful guidelines when using graphic devices.

·       Explain the function: Give the reason you have included the graphic or picture.

·       Balance the functions: Make sure some minor function of the graphic or picture does not work against its major function.

·       Set activities: If the graphic or picture is vital in developing understanding, base an activity on it.

·       Explain conventions: Explain the purpose of shading, solid and broken lines, and perspective.

·       Print picture close to text: Do not expect learners to search for the illustration.

·       Use captions and numbers: Ensure that your illustrations are numbered, captioned, or both; and

·       Graphic emphasis: Use a box or some other device to draw learners’ attention to the vital point:

avoid information overload: do not overload your pictures with information;

remember that pictures do not tell all: learners may also need to experience colour, smell, taste, texture, and weight;

avoid racism and sexism: do not use pictures that present racial or gender stereotypes;

seek copyright permission: essential when using other people’s pictures or illustrations;

test your graphics: show them to a sample of learners to see how they respond; and

build a graphics library: keep a file of graphics that might be useful and note sources.

 

 8. Making your text visually appealing and usable 

To make your study guide one that learners will want to use and one they will enjoy reading and using, keep in mind a number of concerns.

8.1 Page size

The page size of printed course materials has to be a compromise between several different factors:

·       a size that will accommodate both text and illustrations in a way that makes them easy to read and understand;

·       the most economical size, or the size that is most readily available;

·       the size of the printing machines;

·       the most economical size for packing, warehousing, and dispatch; and

·       a large enough size to ensure that the final number of pages in any volume does not make it too bulky to handle.

It is a good idea to look at the publications of other institutions and to try to learn from them.

8.2 Layout and house style

The size of the page and the layout of the material are closely linked.

The layout of the printed page has a direct effect on the ease with which learners can learn from the printed material.

Open and distance learning programmes often use a graphic designer to develop the page layout. He or she may prepare sample double-page spreads of course material and establish a ‘house style’ for the course. A house style specifies the

·       typefaces to be used;

·       type size;

·       length of lines;

·       size of margins;

·       use of bold, italic, and other variants of the typefaces;

·       treatment of headings, subheadings, footnotes, and other elements of the text;

·       position of illustrations and captions in relation to the text; and

·       editing and reference style (for example, American Press Association (apa), Modern Language Association of America mla Style Sheet, University of Chicago Press Manual of Style).

Discussion: It is useful at this point to have some sample learning materials available to pass around to participants or simply to show them, depending on numbers, and ask them to compare them for appeal and usability in terms of the questions that follow.

8.3 Study guide visuals checklist

To determine the adequacy of page size and layout, ask yourself the questions in the study guide visuals checklist.

Study Guide Visuals Checklist

q       Does the page look too empty or too crowded?

q       Does the relationship between text and white space seem about right?

q       Is the typeface easy to read? Is it too small or too ornate?

q       Are the lines of type too long?

q       Is there too much or too little variety in the treatment of the text on the page, or has the designer struck a happy medium? Too much slows you down, too little is tedious.

q       Can you differentiate easily between different levels of heading, and do you understand the significance of each?

q       Do you feel that the overall layout helps you or hinders you in your learning?

 9. Writer's checklist  

As a final check on whether you have attended to the foregoing issues in designing your study guide, ask yourself the questions in the writer’s checklist. You might also want to refer participants back to the more extensive checklists that were provided in the Introduction (Section 3) of Topic 2 (Principles of Instructional Design) of this kit.

Writer’s Checklist

q       Is the layout and format consistent with the style guidelines?

q       Is an overview of the content included?

q       Is the learner clearly directed on how to use the package?

q       Is there an explanation of the icons used to guide the learner?

q       Is the content in segments of similar length, which learners can manage in one session?

q       Is the material sequenced appropriately?

q       Does the text consist of short and simple words, sentences and paragraphs in a conversational, personal style?

q       Are technical terms explained when they first appear in the text?

q       Is the text free of sexist language?

q       Are illustrations place in or next to the text to which they refer?

q       Are the illustrations numbered, captioned, or both?

q       Are the text and illustrations free of third party copyright? If not, has copyright permission been obtained?

q       Have exercises and activities been included at intervals throughout the text?

 

 10. Practive exercise 

10.1 Critiquing a study guide

Instructions:

·       Select a sample study guide, one that is relevant to the circumstances and needs of your participants. Have sufficient copies available so each participant, or at least each two participants, can have one.

·       Divide participants into small groups (each no more than five people) and ask them to critique the study guide according to the ‘Writer’s Checklist’.

·       Ask each working group to be prepared to present their critique, on newsprint sheets if possible, to the group as a whole.

Timeframe: Approximately one hour.

Materials: Sample study guides, newsprint sheets, and marker pens.