Chapter Four

Barriers to Learning in Schools

 Introduction 

Since 1994, various initiatives have been put in place that aim not only to ensure access to educational opportunities and restore a culture of learning and teaching but also to improve the quality of education in South Africa. The issue of barriers to learning – a central theme underlying the concept of open learning – has been of particular concern to educational policy makers and practitioners. Many reports have identified factors that in one way or another affect learning. For example, in a report on the Culture of Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools, Chisholm et al (1996) identified the following as factors that contributed to the collapse of a culture of learning and teaching.[1]

•    Infrastructure, facilities and resources;

•     Leadership, management and administration;

•     Fractured and adversarial relationships between principals, teachers, students and parents;

•     Socio-economic context.

In the recent poverty hearings conducted in South Africa between March and June in 1998, the following were identified as the main obstacles experienced by poor people in gaining access to education:[2]

•    Physical inaccessibility of schools;

•    Poor quality of education received;

•    Financial obstacles;

•    Disputes between teachers and the department of education;

•    Gender;

•    Inadequate support for early childhood development;

•    Problems of learners with disabilities; and

•    Unemployment.

Other barriers are identified in the report of the National Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and the National Committee on Education Support Services (NCESS).[3] These include:

•     Lack of access to basic services;

•     Poverty and underdevelopment;

•     Factors which place learners at risk;

•     Attitudes;

•     Inflexible curriculum;

•     Language and communication;

•     Inappropriate and inadequate provision of support services;

•     Lack of enabling and protective legislation and policy;

•     Lack of parental recognition and involvement;

•     Disability; and

•     Lack of human resource development.

This chapter elaborates on some of the barriers that have been identified in the above reports. It also identifies and explores additional factors that may be considered barriers to learning in schools, as we believe these have clear implications for opening learning in the schooling sector. Some of the problems appear so obvious that they are often overlooked in studies such as this. For this reason, we have attempted to touch briefly on a wide range of issues, to illustrate the breadth of issues covered by efforts to open learning. We have aimed neither to be comprehensive nor to claim that these problems are pervasive through the system as a whole. It is also important to stress that, in focusing on barriers, our aim is not to create an impression that there are only problems in the schooling system. However, focusing on barriers helps us to understand more clearly where the focus of future policy interventions should be. We begin by raising the important issue of social attitudes to learning.

 Social attitudes to learning 

Attitudes and the extent to which they influence practices are important factors in open learning. In South Africa, there is a clear perception that formal, classroom-based schooling is the best way for learning to take place take, and that other forms of learning, such as distance education, are inferior alternatives reserved primarily for those denied access to mainstream educational systems. 

Attitudes are important because they have the potential to affect the way in which people behave. For example, attitudes could influence policies that people develop, decisions on financing of education, the way managers and administrators work in their institutions, and teaching and learning strategies themselves. Attitudes can also affect the way in which learners behave towards teachers and other learners in or outside classrooms. For example, learners may develop discriminatory attitudes resulting from prejudice in favour of or against others on the basis of race, class, gender, culture, disability, ability, or other simplistic generalizations. 

In addition, there are many social practices that are not particularly encouraging for schooling. One example of such practices is initiation. Among some African communities, both boys and girls have to go to initiation school before they are recognized as adults. The initiation process requires that initiates, who are in most cases aged between 15 and 21, be kept away from home and the community for two to three months. The initiation practice is so highly valued that children are taken out of schools to undergo the process. In some communities, particularly the AmaNdebele, the initiation period disrupts school in a more visible manner, because it usually involves more people than the initiates. For example, younger family members of the initiates are required to take food to their brothers every morning and afternoon. Many schools are forced to either start later than usual or cope with scores of pupils coming to school late. 

According to teachers and learners who were interviewed in various schools in the former KwaNdebele region, some learners struggle to catch up missed work, resulting in poor performance. Some of them lose the motivation to continue with school, while others perceive themselves as ‘men’ and ‘women’ who cannot attend classes with or be taught by ‘boys’ and ‘girls’.[4]Learners in one school further indicated that a major problem regarding initiation and the extent to which it affects schooling is the attitude of parents who seem to value traditional practices more than school-based education.[5] 

These kinds of social attitudes and practices are a critical factor to consider when attempting to open learning. On the one hand, allowing them to continue unchallenged can create significant, unnecessary barriers to learning in any educational system. On the other, efforts at reform that deviate too far from what is considered acceptable by the broader society are likely to be rejected before they stand any chance of success. Engaging with this reality effectively and striking the right balance between change and familiarity is a key challenge for policy makers.

 Policies and legislation 

Admission of Learners

One key area of focus for open learning is criteria for admission to educational courses and programmes. In the current education system, the Department of Education has introduced a new admission policy, which stipulates that, for admission into grade one, a child must be seven years old, or six turning seven. Since this policy was passed, some parents, educators, and other interested parties have been writing articles to various national newspapers to express their reservations about the policy. Major concerns raised are that there are children who are younger than the stipulated age for admission who are academically and emotionally ready to enter the schooling system. According to Professor Myrtle Hooper, for example, ‘implementing the policy rigidly turns it into a policy of exclusion, not admission.’[6]  

The new admissions policy may have far reaching consequences in that fewer children will be admitted into grade one, reducing the need for teachers in that grade. This may require further redeployment and retrenchment of teachers, a process that has already had a negative impact on the morale of teachers. The problems of low teacher morale as a barrier to learning are discussed elsewhere in this document. In addition, though, while the policy may not necessarily be considered a permanent barrier to accessing schooling, it might discourage and demotivate otherwise eager young learners, as well as delaying cognitive development, especially amongst those learners whose parents are unable to afford pre-school education.

Language Policy

Language is an extremely important tool for learning. Beyond the foundation phase of schooling, most learners are expected to learn in English and Afrikaans, which are not the primary languages of the majority. Research conducted for the President’ Education Initiative found that learning through learners’ primary languages is decreasing even in the foundation phase.[7] This creates problems for many learners, as the language used in textbooks and other learning materials is sometimes inaccessible. 

The South African Schools Act (1996) and Norms and Standards Regarding Language Policy in Education (Department of Education, 1997) give school governing bodies powers to decide on language for teaching and learning. However, sufficient teaching and learning materials have not been developed in African languages. This means that teachers and learners have no alternative to using English or Afrikaans for much of their classroom work, though code-switching between these languages and the learners’ main languages is a common practice in some schools. 

The use of English or Afrikaans as the main languages for teaching and learning is not only due to shortage of materials in African languages. Many parents also demand that their children be taught in English because it is perceived to be a language of access to qualifications, work, and wealth.[8]

Management and governance structures

South Africa’s Constitution formally divides responsibility for schooling between the national and provincial governments.[9] In terms of law, the national Department of Education is responsible for establishing national norms and standards, while provincial departments are responsible for managing and administering the school system and establishing policies within the national parameters.[10] At the National Policy Review Conference on Education and Training organized by the African National Congress in October 1998, much discussion centred on the inability of provinces to implement policies formulated by the national Ministry of Education. Concerns were also raised about the weak managerial and administrative capacity of provincial departments of education, while representatives from provincial departments raised serious concerns that, although they were expected to implement national government policies, they were not given sufficient resources to enable them to do this effectively.[11]

 Governance, management and administration in provinces 

Uneven development in provinces

In 1994 the national government introduced legislation stating that provinces are responsible for provision of education. Each province has had to develop and adopt strategies in the following areas: infrastructure, financial management, education management and administration, school governance, curriculum, and staff development. By 1997, the Western Cape was reported to have taken responsibility for about 90% of the functions in areas of legislation, organization, provision of books, and physical facilities. KwaZulu-Natal and Free State were reportedly doing well, while the Northern Province and Northern Cape were lagging far behind.[12] 

To date, the provincialization of education has not helped to reduce inequalities that exist between formerly advantaged and disadvantaged schools. Within provinces, some schools are adopting sophisticated management systems, teaching styles and fundraising strategies while others are bothered by gangsterism, overcrowded classrooms, and ill-trained teachers.[13]

Finance Allocations

A major concern with regard to budgetary allocation is that too much money is being spent on personnel, leaving little money for other critical resources. According to IDASA’s review of provincial budgets between 1996/97 and 1999/00, the current personnel-non-personnel spending ratio as reflected in provincial budgets is close to 90:10.[14] Budgeted provincial spending on books and stationery in primary and secondary schools shows a real decline of 14% between 1996/7 and 1999/000. In the two poorest provinces, Eastern Cape and Northern Province spending on textbooks has declined by 46% and 42% respectively. Between the 1997/8 and 1998/9 financial years alone, per capita funding for schoolbooks, teaching equipment and media collections in the Eastern Cape fell from R102 to R54.[15] 

A relative increase in expenditure on personnel has also had a major impact on programmes such as non-formal education, early childhood development, and special schools. With regard to non-formal education, which is catering for Adult Basic Education and Training and out-of school-youth, provincial education budgets are not consistent. The table below shows the inconsistency of provinces when allocating funding for non-formal education, early childhood development and special schools:[16] 

Changes in Provincial Spending on Non-Formal Education
	1997/8	1998/9	1999/000
Eastern Cape	19.9%	-1.7%	3.4%
Free State	0.5%	-24.8%	64.0%
Gauteng	51.4%	-0.7%	11.7%
Kwa-Zulu-Natal	83.0%	8.0%	-5.2%
Mpumalanga	56.8%	-35.0%	-15.9%
Northern Cape	149.2%	-9.5%	-33.3%
Northern Province	25.3%	80.3%	27.4%
North West	12.3%	-3.1%	0.5%
Western Cape	94.0%	2.6%	0.1%
Total	35.7%	-2.9%	5.9%

These inconsistencies in budgetary allocations suggest that non-formal education is not a priority, and that many people in South Africa, including some people in leadership positions, do not as yet understand the significance of such education.

 Governance, management and administration in districts and schools 

Concerns about Bureaucracy

In primary research work done as part of writing this report, some school principals and teachers in the former KwaNdebele region expressed concerns about bureaucratic structures and procedures that they have to go through before their needs are met. For example, one principal noted the following about circuits and districts:

Support you get from the circuits and district is that they will provide you with or bring documents to the school. They will take the documents, sympathising with you but they would not be assisting you in the problem that you are having because they will take all the things that need to be signed, like the requisitions for books. They will take those forms, approve them and take them to the district which will also approve them and then they will be taken to head office where they will stuck and get lost. The next thing you have to start from scratch, so on and so forth. To us, unless these structures are given powers, they are very much ineffective in a way. To be honest, it becomes a waste of tax payers money to have the circuits and districts because they serve as post offices.[17] 

Bureaucratic procedures and structures are not barriers per se. However, they do become barriers when they delay delivery of books to schools and stop principals from taking decisions that would ensure the normal running of schools. Such barriers are prevalent – and well documented in a range of research reports – throughout South Africa’s schooling system.

Lack of Management and Administration Skills among Principals

Besides problems relating to administration and management at the provincial, district, and circuit levels, there is also evidence that administrative and managerial skills of school principals in some schools are not particularly impressive. According to the Minister of Education, Prof. Asmal, 'The school principal, who represents the provincial department of education and is head of the school management team, has the crucial role of professional and administrative leadership, and is responsible for the standard of learning and teaching in the school … It is therefore important that the school leadership team, headed by the principal, and the governing body in each public school is given the opportunity to create the sense of common purpose and mutual support'.[18]

As this statement shows, managerial and administrative functions in schools are largely the responsibility of principals and governing bodies. The main questions therefore become: Do principals and governing bodies have the capacity to carry out the task? Do they have tools to assist them to carry out the mandate and ensure that schools are functional? In a longitudinal study currently being undertaken by the CEPD, learners and teachers in some schools perceived principals as indecisive, not communicating well with stakeholders, lacking necessary managerial skills, and contributing to factionalism in schools. In some schools, principals were criticized for autocratic management styles and for not being sensitive to the needs of teachers and learners.[19] 

A survey conducted by Edusource about teachers’ perceptions of the extent to which the principal is successful shows that on average, principals’ performance in a number of areas is rated around 53%. The table below gives details of the performance of principals as viewed by teachers:[20] 

Teachers’ Perceptions of Principals’ Success in:
Providing a clear vision for the school	52%
Promoting teaching and learning	58%
Being a good manager	56%
Providing guidance for the SGB	56%
Interacting with parents	55%
Interacting with learners	59%
Involving teachers in decision making	52%
Staff development/professional support	46%
Monitoring of teacher performance	46%
Dealing with non-performing staff	42%
Involvement in school activities	58%
Frequent monitoring of school activities and learners’ progress	53%
Promoting cooperation between staff	57

School Governing Body Policies

In terms of the South African Schools Act of 1996, School Governing Bodies (SGB) have powers to determine and charge what the majority of parents agreed upon as the amount to be paid by each learner. 

Observations have been made that, ‘although legislation prohibits schools from denying admission to pupils whose parents cannot pay, various stratagems could be employed by governing bodies to prevent admission of pupils from poorer families.’[21] For example, some governing bodies use language and mathematics competency tests or increase fees in order to prevents pupils from poorer families from gaining access to school. A clear example of how school governing bodies can abuse their power is that of a KwaZulu-Natal parent who was threatened with legal action by a public school for failing to pay her 14-year old daughter’s school fees.[22] At a private school in Parktown, nine Grade Eight pupils, who had initially been refused permission to sit for their end of year examinations for failing to pay schools fees, were allowed to write the examination a day after others had written.[23] Such issues have the potential to affect learners psychologically, destroy their morale, and affect their performance. Such governing body practices do not only violate the tenets of the South African Schools Act, but also contradict open learning principles given that open learning is not only about opening access, but also about providing learners with a fair chance of success.

Curriculum and Limited Subject Choices

Currently, South Africa’s schooling system does not allow many choices for learners. In most cases, schools offer a pre-packaged curriculum. In many schools, it is only at grade ten that some form of ‘choice’ is introduced, as learners follow either Science, Commerce, or Humanities and Social Science courses. In some schools, subject combinations are very limited and depend largely on whether or not the school has teachers for particular subjects. In cases where a school does not have teachers for specific subjects, learners are either forced to take what is on offer or find another school that offers different combinations. These so-called ‘subject choices’ are clearly not choices at all. They are limited, confining, and academic in their nature. 

Another related problem is that, although there are some technical schools and colleges designed specifically for offering vocational and technical subjects, many schools offer only subjects that are academically oriented, thus limiting learners’ choice. The effects of the lack of both vocational and technical subjects in many schools are potentially far-reaching. Many school dropouts and school leavers cannot be absorbed into the labour market due to their inexperience, lack of marketable skills, and simple lack of exposure to the work environment. This limitation raises a number of questions about the openness and effectiveness of the South African schooling system.

Facilities and conditions in schools

In South Africa, many schools are in poor physical condition and reflect inequalities created by the unequal distribution of resources promoted by the apartheid policies.

School Buildings and Infrastructure

In the Review of South African Education compiled by Chisholm, Motala, and Vally for the Centre for Education Policy Development 2000+ Project (1999), the inequalities and poor conditions under which some schools are currently operating have been articulated as follows:

While reasonably well-resourced schools do exist, the vast majority of children in South Africa still continue to be educated in conditions of extreme neglect. Of the 32 000 schools in South Africa, one in four has no water within a walking distance and 11% get their water from dams and rivers. Fifty-seven percent do not have electricity and 52% have pit latrines for toilets, while 13% have no ablution facilities at all. Seventy three percent have no learning materials. Nationally 57 499 classes are needed; the provision of libraries is appalling, with 72% of schools having no media collections and 82% no media equipment. Between 44% and 45% of schools in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape have no sports facilities. The highest average pupil: teacher ratios are found in the Eastern Cape (51 pupils per teacher) and the Northern Province (44 pupils per teacher).[24] 

Many schools do not have libraries, laboratories, toilets, and many other facilities as clearly spelt out by Chisholm et al (1999). In addition, though, there are schools where these facilities have been provided, but, for various reasons, they are not functional. For example, research conducted in the former KwaNdebele region (see Appendix Five) revealed various problems. 

First, in some cases, the problem is with school management, which lacks vision and therefore waits for government to provide resources and facilities. For example, in a school that is waiting for government to deliver library shelving, books are scattered all over the library floor instead of being packed in boxes. In this school, it is clear that management is not prepared to act or move, suffering from what has been described as passivity and ‘victimhood to active agency’.[25] 

Second, high levels of crime and lack of security in schools are a serious problem. All the schools visited in KwaNdebele reported that they have had burglaries where doors or the ceiling were broken in attempts to steal school property. Some schools have had their fences, toilet roofs, furniture, science equipment, doors, windows, books, and other resources either vandalized or stolen. 

Third, some facilities are old and need renovation. For example, in some of the schools visited in the former KwaNdebele region, ceilings have collapsed, causing intolerable noise when it is raining, as well as heat during the summer.

Availability and use of textbooks

A number of studies carried out for the President’s Education Initiative Research Project found that, in general, textbooks were available in schools, although not in all subjects and not in sufficient quantity for all learners.[26] However, researchers who worked in urban and rural primary and secondary schools all noted that very few teachers used textbooks in their classes in any systematic way.[27]

Lack of access to technologies and communication systems

Communication infrastructure is steadily improving in South Africa. Telephones are being installed in some remote areas and the postal system is improving, although many rural and informal settlements schools still have problems. A study by the Palmer Development Group (1999) found that, in their sample of 42 schools in 9 provinces, communication mechanisms are not completely inadequate. For example:

•     62% of schools have working telephones. All of the schools that do not have telephones are located in rural areas or informal settlements.

•     59% of schools in the sample are electrified. Those that are not electrified are located in rural areas and informal settlements.

•     93% of schools in the sample have and use a post office box that is cleared regularly.

•     17% of schools have computers.

•     38% of schools in the sample have overhead projectors 34% radios, and 28% have TVs and VCRs.

•     Only 28% of schools in the sample have libraries.[28] 

Although there have been some improvements in the numbers of schools with access to telephones, electricity and post office boxes, lack of access to libraries and technologies such as computers, television, and video cassette recorders remains a cause for concern.

Overcrowded classrooms

The issue of learner-educator ratios has been hotly debated between South African teacher professional bodies and government. It was eventually agreed that the ratio would be 40:1 at primary level and 35: 1 at secondary level. However, in some schools, teachers still have larger classes than this to teach. For example in one teacher farm school in Groblersdal, Mpumalanga, the teacher, who is also the principal of the school, teaches 80 learners in one class. To make matters worse, the class consists of learners from grades one to seven. Another major problem is that, when he has to attend workshops for principals or for Curriculum 2005, no schooling takes place. This kind of scenario compromises the quality of learning and teaching, as educators cannot pay enough attention to each learner.[29]

Multi-grade classrooms

Multi-grade classrooms are found mostly in farm schools, because these schools do not normally have many learners. The buildings are often small and the number of educators is also very few. As a result, learners in various grades are put in one class with one teacher. Multi-grade classrooms do not necessarily create barriers to learning, but become barriers if teachers do not possess the skills to teach effectively in them. For example, teachers in multi-grade classrooms in Groblersdal indicated that they have had serious problems, especially where they have grades that are already doing Curriculum 2005 mixed with those that are not. They struggle to handle such classrooms and this affects learning.

Physical inaccessibility of schools

This is a problem that particularly impacts on rural and farm communities as a result of their remote geographical location. A study conducted in 1996 by Data Research Africa showed that, in addition to other barriers discussed in this chapter, rural communities are also affected by lack of physical access to schools.[30] This is exacerbated by lack of transport and/ or the high cost of transport. According to the Interprovincial Fiscal Review, by IDASA, many provinces have not scrapped subsidization of school transport altogether, but most have rationalized this service by targeting the only most needy.[31] The major reason for cuts in this service has been a shortage of provincial funds, as these are consumed largely by personnel costs. For example, in Mpumalanga in 1999, only R4,5 million was budgeted for scholar transport, whereas in reality about R44 million was needed for the service.[32] 

The problem of lack of physical access to schools is serious, because it means that children have to walk long distances. This exposes them to all sorts of dangers, may destroy their motivation, and may result in many of them dropping out of school. Because South Africa does not have alternative ways of providing primary education other than through formal schooling, children who can not physically go to school sometimes have no option but to drop out. 

Another problem affecting farm schools and also impacting negatively on teaching and learning is that of the constant mobility of some farm workers. In a study conducted by the Centre for Education Policy Development, Evaluation and Management (CEPD, 1999), a principal in a farm school indicated that, because of constant movement of some farm labourers, learners are forced to leave school in the middle of the year as their families move between farms on a seasonal basis. Even if the farm to which a family moves does have a school, often schools do not register children in the middle of a year. 

In the poverty hearings conducted between March and June 1998, people living on farms also shared information about farmers who abuse their position of power to force children to leave schools to work for them. Some farmers go to the extent of closing schools on their farms if they have disputes with workers.[33] All of these problems disrupt the learning process for learners.[34]

Classroom practices

Open learning does not only create possibilities for changes in administration and management strategies, but also in the way in which education is designed in terms of content, teaching methods, support for learners, and assessment strategies. It requires that learners should become involved in what, how, and where they want to learn.

Content and teaching methods

In summarizing the main findings of the PEI research projects. Taylor and Vinjevold state that the most definitive point of convergence across the PEI studies is the conclusion that some teachers have a poor conceptual knowledge of subjects they are teaching. This causes a fundamental constraints on the quality of teaching and learning activities and consequently the quality of learning outcomes.[35] 

Some of the PEI researchers focused on pedagogy. A key finding was that some of the teachers model the surface forms of learner-centred activities, without apparently understanding the learning theories underlying them, and certainly without using them as medium of enabling learners to engage with substantive knowledge and skills.[36] The PEI researchers who studied textbook use concluded that some teachers avoided textbooks because they lacked the content knowledge or reading skills to use them effectively.[37] 

Obviously, these findings by PEI researchers do not apply to all teachers. However, where teachers’ conceptual, content, and pedagogical knowledge and skills are limited, opportunities for learning are negatively affected.

Assessment strategies

Where teachers lack the knowledge frameworks required to construct appropriate learning activities, they are also likely to struggle with appropriate assessment. Notwithstanding assessment changes advocated by Curriculum 2005 and outcomes-based education, assessment practices in some schools are still dominated by written tests and examinations. Other forms of formative and summative assessment such as presentations, practical projects, peer assessment, and self-assessment are not commonly used. This does not tend to suggest openness in educational practice.

Use of time

In his ‘Call to Action’ statement, the Minister of Education raises a major concern about schools that start late and finish early. He maintains that ‘schools must start on time, from Monday to Friday every day of the week of the school year.’[38] In some cases, pupils accuse teachers of not coming to classes on time and of sitting and chatting in the staff room instead of teaching.[39] Another major source of time lost to teaching and learning activities is union meetings and teacher strikes, which often mean that learners are sent home early.[40] However, learning is not necessarily about learners going to school at 7h00 in the morning and coming back at 17h00 in the afternoon. How time is being used is what matters most. In a study of mixed-mode Further Diplomas in Education and their effect on teachers, the researchers raised the following issues in relation to time.

•     Working in more than one language takes time. Teachers and learners use their main languages together with English to rephrase instructions or to explain ideas and concepts.

•     Relatively large numbers of absentees each day, though not the same learners each day. Under these circumstances, teachers find it difficult to plan for continuity and development in learning.

•     The background knowledge of many learners is poor. Teachers are forced to go back to the work of earlier grades, and they then run out of time for the new work.

•     Homework is either not given or not consistently done. This restricts time for learning and teaching in class time. Yet success in subjects like mathematics at school depends on learners having time to work on mathematical problems themselves, and homework time is needed for this.[41]

Teacher morale

Employment Insecurities

The Minister has identified the issue of low morale among teachers as an area that requires immediate government attention.[42] Low teacher morale is a serious barrier to learning. Uncertainty and distress accompanying processes of rationalization and redeployment have demoralized many teachers, with the result that they feel unsure of their futures. Often teachers who, for a range of reasons, were not prepared to relocate to places where there were teacher shortages had no option but to take voluntary severance packages. 

Although teachers who have been appointed on a permanent basis are concerned about job security, temporary teachers are even more affected and vulnerable. During our visit to schools in the KwaNdebele region, we found that there are teachers who have been working as temporary teachers for more than three years. These teachers are made to sign contracts every three months, making it impossible for them to plan for their work and life beyond that.

Lack of support for teachers

The lack of support from circuit and districts noted above affects teachers as well as school management. For example, in three high schools we visited in KwaNdebele, teachers complained that, although workshops are often promised for educator empowerment, they take a very long time to materialize. The shortage of subject advisors to assist teachers in teaching specific subjects is also a problem.[43] 

Among the factors affecting teachers’ morale and motivation, particularly those that are required to implement Curriculum 2005 and Outcomes-based education (OBE) is inadequate support for these teachers. From their perspective, the new curriculum increases teachers’ responsibilities and changes their daily practice, requiring them to be intellectually resourceful, imaginative, adaptable, flexible, creative, and critical thinkers.[44] These are qualities that professional teachers should develop and impart to their learners to create a culture of learning, teaching, and service.[45] Many teachers feel inadequate, insecure, and angry in the face of demands for wholesale personal and professional reinvention and the development of skills that very few individuals possess. The problem is made worse because many teachers, particularly those from African communities, went through an education system which was itself disempowering and which did not expose teachers to the types of approaches that they are now expected to apply. 

Teachers who were interviewed in KwaNdebele agreed that a number of workshops have been organized to train them in various aspects of Curriculum 2005 and OBE, but many of them were unimpressed with the quality of such workshops. Some of them feel that officials who are sent to train them do not understand Curriculum 2005 and OBE themselves.

Socio-economic context

The socio-economic context within which schools are located greatly affects learning. We discuss briefly some key socio-economic barriers to learning, not to suggest that these problems require direct solutions by the education system, but to locate open learning analysis within this broader social context.

Unemployment and poverty

Unemployment rates in South Africa are alarmingly high. The public and private sectors are not creating sufficient jobs, nor are enough people creating jobs for themselves. As more and more bread winners are retrenched, poverty becomes a growing reality in many households and communities. Due to poverty, which is prevalent mostly in rural areas, but on the increase in urban areas as many people migrate to cities in search of jobs, people live in makeshift shelters, with no electricity, running water, or modern toilets. Many of these people find it difficult to support their children, let alone send them to schools. 

A Report of the Committee on the Culture of Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools points out that even many of those learners who are in school are faced with stark privations which they bring to school with them. Some of these children have no food, parental love or care, and in some cases decent shelter.[46] As the report briefly outlines:

The high unemployment rate and rivalry over scarce resources in the surrounding communities have contributed to social problems such as theft and vandalism of schools’ property, gang wars around, drug trafficking, violence against women and conflict between migrant and urban workers[47] 

Likewise, in one school which visited in the former KwaNdebele, learners related stories of some of the female learners who dropped out of school to become prostitutes, mainly because of unemployment and poverty in their families.

HIV and AIDS

The HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa is said to be among the most severe in the world, and infections continue to increase at an alarming rate. As mothers and fathers die of this epidemic on a daily basis, increasing numbers of learners are being left with no one to support and take care of their educational needs. Such learners often drop out of school to find alternative means to support themselves. Some of them end up living on the streets and as prostitutes. Their self-esteem becomes affected, and so is their ability to learn in schools.

Alcohol and drug abuse

‘Because of its very widespread social use, alcohol is often not seen as a drug.’[48] The use and abuse of intoxicating substances such as alcohol, marijuana, glue, and hard drugs such as cocaine is becoming a serious problem not only in South African communities but in schools as well. As Donald et al argue, experimentation with alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana is common among children, especially adolescents.[49] The following have been identified as vicious cycles of drug abuse:[50]

•     Deterioration in scholastic performance – the learner loses motivation, and concentration. General achievement academically and in sports and extra mural activities drops significantly.

•     Deterioration in interpersonal relationships – the learner may become withdrawn, moody, irritable, or even aggressive. This means that the learner no longer relates well with family members and with other learners.

•     Need for money – because of dependency and addiction, the child will need money to buy the substances. This may lead to theft and to involvement in violence and drug-related crime.

•     Impaired inhibition and social judgement – Because of the effects of drugs on general inhibition, it becomes easy to be involved in social problems such as violence, casual or exploitative sex, and racial and other forms of intolerance. These could make a child dangerous to others.

•     Peer pressure – A child may not only belong to drug controlling networks but could be dependent on more than one drug. The child not only suffers from progressive physical and psychological deterioration but also loses ability –psychological, social and economic to break out of the cycle.

Use and abuse of drugs by either learners or parents is a serious problem, which may affect learning.

Breakdown of family structure

In all the schools that were visited in KwaNdebele, principals, teachers and learners shared with us information that shows that the breakdown of families is a major barrier to learning. In some of the cases that were quoted, divorced parents fight over children. Because of divorce, some learners live with people who are not their biological parents, while some are abused in various ways, physically, mentally, sexually, and emotionally. Although some teachers and principals indicated that they have sometimes intervene successfully in offering counselling to affected learners, the effects of such conditions on learners are enormous.[51] 

Another problem linked to the breakdown of families, also raised by principals and teachers in schools in KwaNdebele, relates to situations where some parents who work in big cities such as Pretoria and Johannesburg leave learners alone at home. In many cases, older children in such situations are charged with the responsibility of running their families, including taking care of the young ones. Performance of some of these learners is seriously affected under these circumstances.

A threatening school environment

Minister Asmal’s call to transform schools into centres of learning emerged from the realization that some schools are gradually being turned into centres of crime, sexual harassment, and/or racial clashes. A number of incidents relating to these issues have been reported in local newspapers, confirming that some schools present a threatening environment that seriously affects learning.

Criminal activities and violence in schools

The high level of crime in South Africa, is a factor that bars people from exercising their right to learn any time and anywhere. In his ‘Call to Action’ statement, Kader Asmal also expresses serious concern about the unacceptable levels of crime in schools.[52] For example, recently there has been a spate of shootings in schools. A principal was shot in her office in Soweto. Three teachers were shot dead by their colleague in a staff room at Anchor Comprehensive College in Soweto,[53] and pupils at Mokgome Secondary School in Soweto wrote their final geography examination under tremendous trauma after a learner had shot another on the school premises ten minutes before the examination began.[54] 

Some of the criminal activities that have been reported in national newspapers in about one month are as follows:[55]

•     Pupil 15, stabs teacher to death (Citizen, 11/12/1999)

•     Schoolgirl dies after fist fight with mate (Citizen,11/11/1999)

•     Schoolboy forced to strip for not wearing uniform (Star, 12/11/1999)

•     School thieves steal critical equipment (Sowetan, 12/11/1999)

•     School stunned by shooting. Here a 17 year old was shot in the six floor of Avondale College, in Johannesburg. (Sunday World, 21/11/1999)

Despite growing incidents of criminal activities and violence in schools where innocent principals, teachers and learners lose their lives, budgetary constraints prevent provinces from providing adequate security for schools.

Sexual harassment

Problems of sexual harassment are also rife in some schools. Incidents of child molesting have been reported,[56] and there are serious problems regarding sexual violence against school girls being carried out by teachers, fellow learners, and family members. When Veronica Mukasa, a researcher with the African Gender Institute at the University of Cape Town, investigated the nature and practice of sexual harassment in secondary schools,[57] she found that learners in the school that she visited had a limited understanding of sexual harassment. She also found that it was a practice where some male learners and educators offered justifications such as ‘girls ask for it’.

Racism in schools

This problem affects some formerly white schools that are now accepting black learners. Incidents of racial clashes have been reported in schools like Ben Viljoen in Groblersdal and Vryburg High School. A recent study on Racism, Integration and Desegregation in South African Public Secondary Schools, which looked at ways in which racial prejudice manifests itself, factors which inhibit or promote integration, and how schools respond to learners diversity found, that ‘racism in schools is extremely prevalent, intense and disturbingly “normal”.’[58] The report further states that a large number of respondents spoke of racial taunting, stereotyping, and labelling in classrooms, playgrounds, and corridors of schools. Some of the major findings show that 62% of school learners felt that there is racism in schools. Roughly the same percentage observed either that their school either did not have a policy or programme to eliminate racism or it was unsuccessful. Furthermore, only 2% of respondents felt that racial integration occurs between learners outside school hours, and only 5% observed that integration takes place on the playground.[59] 

Given the prevalence of crime, sexual harassment and racial clashes in many schools, it could be extrapolated that, if schools are so unsafe during the day, they will remain no-go areas during the night. This means that those whose homes do not offer a conducive environment for learning will have not much choice in terms of where they can study and do assignments.

Lack of support, guidance, and motivation for learners

From discussion of various socio-economic conditions, it is clear that some learners are confronted with serious problems and traumatic experiences. Unless they are given the necessary support, guidance, and motivation to face their problems, they could easily become demoralized and drop out of school. Adequate learner support is therefore one of the most important aspects of learning. However, as a result of budgetary constraints, provincial education departments are unable to appoint specialized educators to offer support to learners. Principals and educators in schools that were visited in KwaNdebele indicated that often educators who are not trained to handle traumatic situations are required to offer counselling to learners. 

According to principals and teachers who were interviewed, other factors also undermine learners’ motivation to undertake constructive learning. For example, the apartheid education system denied millions of people access to a good education. The poor academic background of many families from previously disadvantaged communities has had a serious bearing not only on the motivation of learners, but also on their readiness to work on their own. 

Similarly, in South Africa, people have always perceived education as a key to better job opportunities and a better life. However, because the economy is not creating enough jobs, even well educated people are struggling to find jobs. It is very discouraging and demoralizing for young learners to see their brothers and sisters from universities and colleges roaming the streets without work.

Illiteracy and other learning barriers

Reading skills created by differences in class and urban/rural locations exist. In 1996, Neil le Roux’s research on reading and writing skills compared the skills base of children enrolled at a Model C primary school in East London with children enrolled at READ project schools and other ‘control’ schools in rural areas around East London. The results

showed that rural children at disadvantaged schools seem to be, on average, eight years behind their urban counterparts in reading levels. The Grade 7 rural school pupils has an average reading age of 7.6 years while their chronological age was 14.4 years. If these pupils advanced to secondary school, they would be faced with textbooks written for the 16-year language competency level. They would be unable to access the information in these textbooks. The situation highlights the plight of the rural school pupil. In some cases the child may have been able to read, but stopped because there was no material and he then lost the facility to read. This leads to a huge fallout because children are so discouraged. These youngsters, on the whole, will never have the opportunity to overcome the handicap of poor language competence and are unlikely to get high-level employment.[60]

The learning needs and experiences of children in these different types of schools and geo-economic areas indicate strongly that different types of interventions are required. While it may not be possible to describe different levels of literacy among all students, it is possible to make some general statements about literacy skills (or the lack thereof). First, illiteracy is alienating and creates stigmas; and children with literacy difficulties do face alienation from more competent classmates. Second, literacy is a prerequisite for further and higher education. Children with limited literacy skills are less likely to continue their education beyond school. Third, there are different levels of literacy competence, ranging from passive reading through to active forms of reading that transform children by stimulating their imagination, intellect, moral thinking, and other abilities. Mechanistic teaching and rote learning methods do not encourage the development of active literacy, but keep children in an arrested state of functional literacy. Fourth, reading has been linked to proficiency in additional languages,[61] and, in South Africa, multi-lingual children have improved social, learning, and employment opportunities. 

Many South African students have different, and sometimes less effective study skills than other students. Moller’s study on homework examined the social context within which studying occurs. Some participants reported studying alone while others, more male than female, reported doing homework with friends. According to Moller:

Survey results indicate that many high risk students seek to compensate for the poor quality home environment by studying at school with friends. Their efforts appear to go un-rewarded. Other results from the study...indicate that participation in study groups has little positive influence on academic achievement. This suggests that the compensation strategies of most pupils from poor quality home environments are not working well and additional measures need to be devised to assist pupils to make academic progress.[62] 

This trend is supported by findings from other sources. At an anecdotal level, descriptions about students participating in a distance access course in Durban indicated that students are encouraged to set up study groups but reported that they do not because they do not know how to study effectively in groups.[63] More detailed information about these students’ study skills (not reported in the article) showed that they spent as many as eight hours reading a four to ten page extract; used a dictionary on average five times per page; were not able to summarize effectively; and developed inappropriate or inaccurate understanding of the content of the extract. 

At a theoretical level, South African psychologists such as Anita Craig[64] and Ronny Miller[65] have argued that students are disadvantaged by learning opportunities that do not provoke learning (change) in students, and thus the disjuncture between past learning and the demands of different learning opportunities is always extended.[66] Disadvantaged students approach learning tasks with an ‘indigenous epistemology’ or a belief that there is an assumed, unchanging and ‘final truth’ which must be uncovered. This ‘truth’ therefore can be simply stated, requiring no evidence or argument.[67]

Craig and Miller’s work on ‘indigenous epistemology’ suggests that these students make and seek out knowledge claims in which truth is revealed through reference to the real world, and can be captured in blurred and sweeping statements.[68] An example of this would be the statement that ‘it is “true” that all women want to be mothers because I want to be a mother’. This type of thinking supports rote learning methods because, if a student believes that the truth derives from authorities such as a supernatural being or experts, then accessing the truth or knowledge demands little more than passively receiving it. Resources that do not support interaction and encourage additional activities beyond using the resource itself will not challenge this, and have the potential to reinforce rote learning methods. Similarly, once-off interventions are unlikely to make a positive impact on challenging these learning patterns.

 Conclusion 

This chapter has not aimed to provide a comprehensive description of schooling in South Africa, nor has it attempted to construct any specific argument. Instead, it has aimed to paint a picture of life in South African schools and the barriers that many learners face in this system. The intention is not to apportion blame for these circumstances, nor to provide solutions to all of them. However, this broad context creates a critical context for considering potential ways of further opening the general and further education and training systems in South Africa. We continue this descriptive work with a more detailed analysis of policy in Further Education and Training.

 Footnotes 

[1] Chisholm et al. 1996. The culture of Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools, Report of the Committee on The Culture of Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools. Wits EPU, Commissioned by the Ministry of Education Gauteng, June 1996

[2] Liebenberg, S and Pillay, K. 1998. Poverty and Human Rights: national speak out on Poverty Hearing, March to June 1998, p.30-35

[3] Department of Education. 1997. Quality education for All: Overcoming barriers to Learning and Development, Report of the national Commission on Special Needs n Education and Training (NCSNET) and National Committee on education Support Services (NCESS), Pretoria, 28 November 1997

[4] Interviews with educators and  learners in schools in the former KwaNdebele (31 January to 03 February 2000)

[5] Interviews with learners at the KwaNdebele Science School (03 January 2000)

[6] Professor Myrtle Hooper.2000. ‘Ministers’ new school admission policy is flawed and he should try to be flexible’ in Star, 15 January 1999 see CORE: Education, 03-14 January 2000

[7] Taylor, N and Vinjevold, P. 1999. Getting Learning Right: Report of the President’s Education Initiative Research Project. Johannesburg. Joint Education Trust: p.224

[8] Ibid: 220 - 221

[9] Pampallis, J. 1998. Decentralisation in the new Education System: Governance and Funding of schooling in South Africa 1992-1997, in Education Policy Unit (Natal). 1998. Democratic Governance of Public Schooling in South Africa. Durban. Education Policy Unit, University of Natal

[10] Ibid

[11] Wits EPU and CEPD. 1998. Report of the National Policy Review Conference on Education and Training, 9-12 October 1998

[12] Edusource Data News. No.19/ December 1997: 5

[13] The Educator, October, 1998: 14

[14]Idasa Budget Information Service,1999, ‘Intergovernmental Review: A Review of Provincial Budgets 1996/7 – 1999/000’, 11 October 1999

[15] Ibid

[16] Ibid

[17] Interview with a principal in a school in the former KwaNdebele (04 February 2000) 

[18] Asmal, K. 1999. ‘Call to Action: Mobilising Citizens to Build a South African Education and Training System for the 21s^t Century’, Statement by Prof. Kader Asmal, Tuesday 27 July 1999

[19] Kgobe, P.1999. op cit

[20] Edusource Data News No.26/September 1999. p.6

[21] Chisholm L, Motala S, and Vally S. 1999. ‘Review of South African Education 1996-1998’, for CEPD Education 2000 Plus Conference, August 1999

[22] Pretorius, C. 1999. ‘Your school fees or your house: Single mom faces losing everything because she can’t afford to pay for her child’, in the Sunday Times, 07 November 1999

[23] Mpye S. 1999. ‘Pupils barred from exams over fees’, in the Sowetan, 22 November 1999: 4

[24] Chisolm L, Motala S, and Vally S. 1999. Review of South African Education 1996-1998: For the Centre for Education Policy Development 2000+ Project Conference August 1999

[25] Christie, P and Potterton, M et al. 1997. School Development in South Africa: A Research project to investigate strategic Interventions for quality improvement in South Africa. Johannesburg. Education Department, University of the Witwatersrand

[26] Taylor, N and Vinjevold, P (Eds). 1999. Getting Learning Right. Johannesburg. The Joint Education Trust

[27] Ibid: 183

[28] Palmer Development Group In Association with Resource Development Consultants and the University of Natal. 1999. Impact Assessment and Perception Audit of National Communication Directorate Materials, Final Report, 06 September 1999

[29] This was onserved in our recent visit to farm schools in Groblersdal.

[30] Gordon, Adel.1999. Are we Fitting a Square PEG into a Round Hole: Promoting Quality Education in Rural Areas. Canada: The Canada-South African Education Management Programme

[31] IDASA Budget Information Service. 1999. Intergovernmental Fiscal Review, 1996/97 to 1999/00, 11 October 1999, p. 95

[32] Ibid

[33] Liebenberg et al. 1999. Poverty and Human Rights: National Speak Out on Poverty Hearings, March to June 1998

[34] Kgobe, P. 1999. Transforming the South African Basic Education and Training System: A Report of case Studies, Centre for Education Policy Development, Evaluation and Management, Presented at Education 2000 plus conference, August 1999   

[35] Taylor, N and Vinjevold, P. 1999. Getting Learning Right: Report of the President’s Education Initiative Research Project. Johannesburg. Joint Education Trust. 230

[36] Ibid. 230

[37] Ibid. 183

[38] Asmal, K. 1999. ‘Call to Action: Mobilising citizens to build a South Africa education and training system for the 21^st century’ 27 July 1999

[39] Kgobe, P. 1999. ‘Transforming the South African Basic Education and Training System: A Report of Case Studies’, Centre for Education Policy Development, Evaluation and Management, Presented at Education 2000 plus conference, August 1999.

[40] Ibid

[41] Adler, J.1999.’Mixed-Mode Further Diplomas in Education and their Effects’. Summary Report

[42] Asmal, K. 1999. op cit

[43] Interviews with educators from various schools in KwaNdebele (31January-12 February 2000

[44] Technical Committee on the Revision of Norms and Standards for Educator Education. Op cit.

[45] Technical Committee on the Revision of Norms and Standards for Educator Education. Op cit. 

[46] Wits EPU, 1996, The Culture of Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools, Report of the Committee on the Culture of Learning Teaching, Johannesburg, Education Policy Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Commissioned by the Ministry of Education, Gauteng

[47] Wits EPU, 1996, The Culture of  Learning and Teaching in Gauteng Schools, Commissioned by the Ministry of Education, Gauteng

[48] Donald, D et al, 1997, Educational Psychology in Social Context: Challenge of development, social issues and special needs in Southern Africa, Cape Town, Oxford University Press

[49] Ibid

[50] Ibid

[51] Interviews with principals, educators and learners in various schools in KwaNdebele, 31 January –12 February 2000

[52] Asmal, K. (1999). Op cit

[53] Star, 24/11/1999

[54] Mothibeli, T, 1999, ‘Tragic Soweto school killings’ in The Star, 23 November 1999: 1

[55] Co-operative for Research and Education, 06 – 26 November 1996

[56] Soggot M, 1999, ‘Child-molesting educators still get full pay’, in Mail and Guardian, November 05 to 11/1999

[57] Mukasa, V, 1999, ‘Talking about Sexual harassment in Schools’ in Agenda: Empowering women for gender equity, Education, No.41, 1999. 58-60

[58] Chisholm, L, Motala, S and Vally, S, 1999, Review of South African Education 1996-1998: for the Center for Education Policy Development 2000+Project, p.21

[59] Ibid

[60] READ. (1998). Op cit. pp. 6-7.

[61] Hugo, C. (1996). Classroom libraries. In J. Karlsson. Op cit.

[62] Moller. Op cit. p. 44. Emphasis Added.

[63] Selikow, T.A. Learner Support at the Regional Access Programme (RAP). In SAIDE. (1998). Open Learning Through Distance Education, 4, 1. 

[64] Craig, A. P. (1991). Adult cognition and tertiary studies. South African Journal of Higher Education, 5, 2.

[65] Miller, R. (1992). Double, double, toil and trouble. South African Journal of Higher Education, 6, 1.

[66] Bradbury, J. (1993). The meta-language of cognition. A paper presented at the Kenton Olwander Conference.

[67] Bradbury, J. Op cit. pp. 8-9.

[68] Bradbury, J. Op cit.