The information presented in this document has been gathered from primary and secondary research processes. A literature survey on educational broadcasting was conducted, and web sites of broadcasters and relating to educational broadcasting were visited. A set of questions to circulate to international broadcasters was formulated. Initial electronic correspondence gave some background to the research, and requested that recipients responded to the questions that had originally been drawn up. This method of data collection relied on goodwill for responses from those receiving the electronic correspondence. Unfortunately, very few responses to the questionnaires were obtained despite a number of follow up requests. As a result, most of what has been presented here has been compiled from secondary sources either from literature or web sites.

The descriptions of adult and youth educational broadcasting services of international broadcasters in this appendix are not exhaustive, but rather illustrative of a few services. The descriptions have been arranged alphabetically by country. The level of detail varies greatly for each description. In some cases, the information obtained simply pointed to past and present existence of some form of educational broadcasting for this target audience. In other cases, particularly where research information was available, detailed descriptions of the type and extent of various initiatives was obtained. For ease of reference the sources of information and the type of technology (radio and/or television) have been included in both the contents page and each description. The following countries have been included:

Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio
Target Audience: Unemployed Youth
Focus: Self development and career planning

(BIR) People of Tomorrow/University of the West Indies Women and Development Unit and Voice of Barbados
‘Content: self-development for unemployed youth; career plan; income generating skills
Audience: young unemployed people in Barbados (and nearby islands)
Distance education methods used: radio programmes; radio phone-in service, linkage to face-to-face interviewing and counselling, group workshops, linkage to face-to-face skills training courses
Governance: university department and national radio station
History and impact: launched in 1985, still running in 1989. No information since 1990’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.29)

Interactive Radio Instruction
Sources of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio
Target: Women caregivers who had poor literacy skills, minimal training and were caring for young children in poor peri-urban areas.
Focus: Early Childhood Development

Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) projects have been introduced in Bolivia in a number of educational areas: health, mathematics and early childhood development. The use of radio broadcasts to support early childhood development are described here.

Interactive radio broadcasts were used to support early childhood development. The Bolivian public broadcaster developed radio-based learning programmes to support integrated child development centres, known as pidis.

In March 1993, ONAMFA (National Organisation for Women, Children and the Family) and the LearnTech project agreed to experiment with ways to engage young children in active play, and to stimulate early learning activities through IRI methodology.(Bosch, A & Crespo, 1995, p.9)

An IRI model was created to specifically cater for the educational needs of the women caregivers who had poor literacy skills, minimal training and were caring for young children in poor peri-urban areas. The audio series that was created, targeted both audiences: young children and caregivers. This is done through a character in the series:

As each program is aired and the caregivers and children actively participate, a character, Tia Clara, points out the significance of the activities and how they can be adapted once the programme is over. (Bosch, A & Crespo, 1995, p.9)

The programs were twenty minutes long focused on engaging the groups of children in creative games, stories, and role plays. Children in the Bolivian pidis were stimulated to learn through seeing, hearing, touching and interacting with each other and with materials already present in their environment (Bosch, A & Crespo, 1995, p.9). A master plan was developed for the design of the broadcasts, which was found to have usefulness, beyond the planning, as ideas articulated in the Master plan were alter incorporated in a guide book. The master plan specified that each programme was to have four goals: two goals for the training of caregivers and two for the learning goals for the children. A guidebook was developed, and adapted several times in the bases of formative evaluation, to relate the broadcast program activities to child development and professional development. The following ‘important issues for IRI for Early Childhood Development’ are noted in the conclusion of the report on Bolivia’s pidi project:

Even though Bolivia has a history of radio education and an organised network of educational radio stations, the pidi team realised the advantages of using audiocassettes, giving the following reasons:

- ONAMFA provided each pidi with a cassette player and could assist in the delivery of materials;
- Repetition is important for young children;
- With the programs on the cassettes, caregivers could use it according to their own needs. many caregivers did not have watches and could not adhere to the broadcast schedule; and
- Cassettes can be reused by the pidi.

Initial training for caregivers on how to interpret and use the IRI package, greatly improved the use of the programs and the guidebook. Incorporating more training was noted as an important next step for the project. An increased focus on learning, meant that one writer focused on the script for an entire program rather than on isolated segments. The series of activities were connected through a guiding narrative thread. Teamwork and collaboration between script writer, artist, evaluation and ECD specialists were identified as key elements in the design and implementation of the project.

The pidi project has been copied and adapted for use in rural Ecuador. The report on the pidi project in Bolivia indicates that:

The Association for Training and Resources in Early Education (TREE), an NGO based in Durban South Africa, will soon be piloting a version of Jugando en el Pidi, complete with Zulu stories and characters in the Kwazulu-Natal region in South Africa in 1995.(Bosch, A & Crespo, 1995, p.9)

The person contacted (no name given, 14/7/98) at TREE confirmed that tapes that had been prepared for this project, had been sent to OLSET for processing. At the time of writing, TREE was waiting to get the tapes back. The project did not seem to be a high priority for the organisation.

Radio San Gabriel: Auto Didactic Adult Education (SAA) 'The Voice of the Aymera People'
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio
‘Content: Aymera culture and language, social organisation, literacy, numeracy and post literacy, agricultural skills, entrepreneurial and commercial skills, artisan crafts, health.
Audience: adult peasant communities/groups amongst the Aymera people in the Altiplano and tropical valleys of Bolivia. Special emphasis on the needs of women.
Distance education methods used: radiophonic school approach: regular educational radio programmes, printed self-study textbooks, study-groups/cultural circles and meetings in designated study centres, carefully trained and supported group/circle leaders, central teacher team producing the textbooks and radio programmes.
Governance: Catholic Church-owned private radio station co-ordinating the whole programme with accredition and some financial support from government.
History and impact: Radio San Gabriel grew out of a church-based radio station established in 1955. It became more directly educational in 1977. Between 1977 and 1980 it was involved with government supported moves to create a non-formal community education programme. This declined in the early 1980’s and a new programme of adult basic and adult secondary run by Radio San Gabriel, on which this note is based was launched in 1986. It was due for evaluation in 1991. The results are not known.
Source: JC Manruque 1990 in Adult Education and Development DVV’. (Dodds, T, 1996, p.29)

BURKINA FASO
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Local Radio Stations (Kongoussi, Poura, Souron, Diapaja, Djibasso, Orodaro)
‘Content: cooperative education, health education, agricultural education, community education.
Audience: local communities in the limited geographical area covered by each station (20-50 km radius), rural adults with common linguistic cultures
Distance education methods used: regular educational radio programmes, close relations with local extension services who often provide the programme content
Governance: local radio stations plan and control the educational output, but are dependent on local government (and NGO) extension services. Largely self-financing
History and impact: very limited information available. Plans for small-scale community/ local radio stations grew out of recognition of the decline of centrally-controlled rural radio/radio clubs initiatives in 1984/5. The first three such stations were inaugurated in 1986; one more in 1989; two more were due to start in 1990.’(Dodds, T, 1996, Y F Tiemtore, 1990)

CANADA
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target Audience: Adults
Focus: Skills training

TV Ontario, in cooperation with employers, training associations, professional groups amongst others, develops skills training programmes for broadcasts. This is in response to the need to train, and upgrade the skills and competencies of, the Canadian workforce. The following extract describes this component of the work of TV Ontario:

We define skills as literacy, numeracy, technological skills, workplace management, communication, and legislation as well as skills for integrating our multicultural workplaces more effectively. The broadcast material that we develop must be part of the ongoing training initiatives of the partner, have some kind of learner support system in place - whether print materials, tutor or computer - and must be recognised in some way through a credit or certification. We provide the instructional design expertise that allows the appropriate use of television and other technologies, and the partner has responsibility for the administrative support. We are working with unions, police forces, teachers, voluntary sector, and many other groups in the development of materials that will provide targeted and credited skills training.( Tobin, J, 1993, p.80)

CHINA
Sources of Information: Literature
Technology: Television and radio
Target Audience: Adults and young middle-school leavers
Focus: Varied from higher education to vocational and technical training

The history of radio and television colleges in China can be traced back to the early 1960s when several major cities in the country started offering programmes through radio, television and integrated with correspondence communication and face-to-face sessions.(Runfang, W, 1997, p.4) This mainly focused at post-secondary education for working adults requiring professional expertise in engineering technical training and teacher training. At the end of the ten year cultural revolution in 1976, the training needs of the country were far beyond the capacity and capability of the conventional colleges and universities. To meet the urgent social and human resource development needs, the then modern technologies of radio and television were thought to provide a solution. A feasibility study for establishing a network of radio and television universities was conducted in 1978 and in 1979 China’s RTVUs were established. They were established as open higher education institutions, focusing primarily on providing vocational and technical training that leads to diplomas for working adults. In addition programmes for secondary vocational education, on-the-job training, professional training and continuing education are provided ‘to meet the needs for the socialist construction of the country’(Runfang, W, 1997, p.7). The instructional objectives of the RTVUs are aimed at:

- providing higher education to those who have failed to gain access to conventional universities and colleges;
- providing vocational and technical education for prospective employees in factories, companies, enterprises and related public services;
- offering professional and job-related practical in-service training for those workers and staff members who have not had the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills required for their jobs;
- offering continuing education for the upgrading and updating of those members of the work force who have a tertiary background; and
- conveying lifelong education to the whole society for the improvement of human resources.(Runfang, W. & Yuanhui, T. , 1994, p.2)

The RTVU courses consist of radio and television broadcasting, audio and video recordings and print materials. Broadcasts account for 10-30% of the course and are built around the print materials. ‘They are, to a large extent, direct recordings of conventional university classroom lectures by famous professors as presenters.’(Runfang, W, 1997, p.23) recently most of them are produced by the programme production centres of both the central and provincial radio and television stations. The programmes last between 30 and 40 minutes and are recorded for audiocassette distribution.(Runfang, W, 1997, p.23) Print production is done by the CRTVU and consists of course books, reference book sand study guides. While course books are mainly knowledge-based consisting of weekly study units, the ‘study guides are compiled to accompany the text and TV programmes. They aim to outline aims and objectives, certain notes and (explain) difficult points, and provide answers to exercises in the coursebooks’(Runfang, W, 1997, p.23). The main learning activity for CRTVU programmes is group instruction. ‘Student who are studying fulltime are expected to come to class for listening/watching radio/television (sic) programmes, attending local lectures for local courses and participating in face-to-face tutorials’(Runfang, W, 1997, p.23). About thirty students are organised into a tutorial group that meets after about four hours of radio or television programmes or self study, for about fifty minutes.(Runfang, W, 1997, p.23) At the end of each term nation wide examinations are held.

The following is a brief summary of a China’s Radio and TV Secondary Vocational-Technical Schools. These schools focus on ‘junior middle school graduates, working adults, peasants and farmers’(Runfang, W. & Yuanhui, T. , 1994, p132) and aim to provide secondary diploma education.

Each year, about 55 percent of junior middle school graduates, who are only 15 years old, cannot enter any senior middle schools or other vocational-technical schools, after they have received a 9-year compulsory education. They have to go to work in the fields, or do all kinds of odd jobs either in rural industries or small urban workshops, or simply stay at home waiting for employment in three years.(Runfang, W. & Yuanhui, T. , 1994, p132)

The secondary vocational-technical schools are intended to target these young people. Of the 108 such schools nationally half are affiliated to local TV and radio universities. The academic structure and range of the programmes offered at these schools depend on local analysis, conditions, facilities and materials. Students are expected to enrol for two and a half, three or four years, depending on the different programme requirements. A credit system which has no time limit is adopted. Diplomas are awarded to those who accumulate enough credits.(Runfang, W. & Yuanhui, T. , 1994, p132)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Interactive Radio Instruction
Sources of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio
Target audience: Out-of-school youth
Focus: Reading writing , maths, games, social sciences
A Radio- Assisted Community Basic Education (RADECO) project was initiated in Barahona, Dominican Republic, in 1981.(Eshgh R, Hoxeng J et al., 1998) It went on air in 1983.(Agency for International Development) Daily interactive radio broadcasts, of an hour each, were given in the following areas:

- instruction in reading;
- writing;
- maths;
- music and games; and
- natural and social science were given.

This core curriculum was broadcast to children at 4p.m., after their workday had ended. A radio monologue was replaced with a learning dialogue. There was no two-way transmission, but rather pauses were left for student response, before the correct answer was given.(Agency for International Development)

RADECO created an infrastructure of modest shelters built by villagers which were used as learning centres…Children congregated at these shelters late in the day, when they were free of chores. Radioauxiliaries, or paraprofessional teachers, distributed print materials to accompany the radio lesson, turned on the radio and did what they could to help the children follow the lesson.(Moulton, M, 1994, p.23)

It was felt that this group structure and learning environment contributed to the project’s success in meeting instructional goals.

Radio Santa Maria (RSM), non-formal education and literacy programmes
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio
‘Content: literacy and numeracy, basic education for adults including: self development skills, life-skills, social, cultural and economic concerns and skills for adults, youth programmes, religious affairs
Audience: adults and young adults (14-65); peasants in rural areas (75%); urban and peri-urban slum dwellers
Distance education methods used: radio series, local newspapers (using local reporters) printed educational materials, study groups or house-based 'schools', groups organised by peasant organisations, youth organisations, women's organisations etc., "friendship circles"
Governance: educational institution established by and with support of Roman Catholic Church, owning and running its own radio station; close liaison with workers and peasants organisations and local NG0s
History and impact: established in 1956, reorganised into a radiophonic school in 1969. Initially concentrated on out-of-school parallel lower secondary classes for young adults; in mid 1970s began literacy, basic and non-formal education activities for adults; carried out a major revision of its adult literacy work, on Freirean lines, in the 1980s. Growing and expanding its covering in 1990; still active’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.33)

ECUADOR
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio (IRI)
Target Audience: Teachers and parents of ECD
Focus: Conflict resolution, critical thinking skills

In 1996 a pilot project focusing on

teachers and parents for ECD, kindergarten and first grade children to help adults learn how to facilitate the development of critical thinking skills and conflict resolution for young children, (Bosch, A., 1997, p.10)

was being developed. It aimed to use a decentralized approach. Storytelling is used as the pedagogical tool. Students and teachers are asked to resolve the conflict between characters.(World Bank Human DevelopmentNetwork)

ETHIOPIA
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio (IRI)

‘Tigray Institute of Distance Education (TIDE)
Content: extension officer training; pre- and post-literacy courses in health and agricultural education; water supply and sanitation; small-scale business skills
Audience: Non-literate and newly-literate adults, especially women; extension workers, including those trained as para professionals during the civil war.
Distance education methods used: radio and audio cassette programmes; selfstudy printed materials including flip-charts; study-groups and briefly-trained studygroup leaders
Governance: local NGO with support from regional government
History and impact: TIDE was established as a small experimental programme in 1993; it is currently developing and testing distance education courses for both formal and non-formal education; its programmes are expected to be launched in 1996’(Dodds, T, 1996, p.7)

FINLAND
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Television
Audience: Adults
Content: Second Language Learning

YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation, mainly produces instructive education programmes. The programmes aim to get audiences to enrol in educational courses or to use follow up materials. The acceptance of language tuition is very great in Finland.

Kaputska is a Russian language television series of eight programmes of twenty minutes each, which aims to:

Break down prejudices, to motivate the public and to enhance the negative image of everything that has anything to do with Russia and Russian. Our message is: Russian is modern, Russian is pop, Russian is sexy (Roman, S., 1998, p.52)

A back-up course package is sold for learning Russian, which comprises an audiocassette, a disc with several games, a CD-ROM with an animated adventure game, and two books.

FRANCE
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target audience: Varied
Focus: Varied

The new French channel, La Cinquieme, seems to have done this particularly well. It aims to make knowledge and culture accessible to all, (Lecat D, Knowledge and Discovery, p.27)not just to those in niche areas like schools or educational institutions.

La Cinquieme was established in December 1994 as the channel of learning and knowledge. It aims to be a popular channel ‘for the people’, and to make knowledge and culture accessible to all. It desires above all to give everyone an appetite for and enjoyment of learning. The guiding principle of Encrans du saviour (knowledge on screen) is to combine enjoyment with the provision of knowledge. It deals with traditional branches of knowledge like mathematics, history, geography, literature, philosophy, economics, and science. It also deals with preventative health care, the environment, the fight against social exclusion, and knowledge of education and civic institutions. The following successes are evident:

- Documentaries and magazine programmes have drawn a loyal and approving audience;
- La Cinquieme has a 26 minute a week slot for short films by young directors;
- Affaires publiques (of public concern) is a programme devoted to instruction in civics, which has been welcomed as part of the Encrans du saviour slot; and
- Documentary programmes dealing with travel and adventure are also mentioned as meeting growing success.(Lecat D, Knowledge and Discovery, p.21-27)

GERMANY
Sources of information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target audience: General viewing
Focus: History, popular science and health

Germany’s ZDF has moved away from programmes which had ‘didactically edited analyses and processes’ as a result of the low audiences these programmes attracted. It decided to produce programmes with the following features:

- transmission times that are easy to remember and remain unchanged;
- the best transmission time available; and
- clear content that is easy to grasp and suitable for gaining viewers interest in definite areas of life.(Homering, W, p.40)

Historical subjects, natural history, the history of art and culture, myths and legends, and threats to the beauties of earth’s nature were some areas identified. The transmission time was fixed on Sundays from 7.30 p.m. to 8.15 p.m. ZDF staff do not describe these programmes as educational programmes, but rather as programmes that ‘offer the public subjects which are worth watching and thinking about - what the viewers make of them is left open’(Homering, W, p.40-41). The following development emerging in the documentary area since the end of the 1980s were identified:

• Educational programmes were ineffective and had small audiences due to their rigid, often academic conception. As a result, documentaries were revised to appeal, not only to a chiefly specialized audience, but also to viewers whose interest could potentially be aroused.

• ZDF research findings have
  contributed towards getting away from certain editorial truisms which say that one has to enlighten the viewer as fast as possible and condescendingly instruct him on what one already knows oneself. Instead, a different attitude also became possible: no longer regard the viewer as the recipient of certain lessons, but go on a journey of discovery with him almost as an equal partner (sic).(Homering, W, p.40-41)

• Another important current has been the rising demand and noticeable increase in competence in counselling broadcasts.

• The department focuses on what is popular, and less on serving a limited specialised audience that already has some knowledge of the subject.

• Creatively crossing the borders between individual subjects areas has led to an increase in new themes, narrative styles and presentation forms.

Three successful series are mentioned:

- Sphinx - the secrets of history;
- Terra X - venturing into the unknown, and
- ZDF’s Knoff-hoff show (science subjects and oddities from natural science presented in popular way);
Bavarian television’s Die Sprechstunde (Consultation Hour), a health magazine programme, is also described as successful.

‘Un-Ruhestand’ (Restless Retirement; 1980 - 1983)
Sources of Information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target audience: Elderly adults
Focus: Dealing with growing older and representation for old people.

The following extract describes a German broadcasting initiative which was run from 1980 to 1983. It is interesting both in terms of its content and target audience and its contrast to the more recent trends articulated in the previous examples.

‘The integrated media's project 'Un-Ruhestand' was implemented in the area of social learning and political education between the Second German Television (ZDF), a paperback publisher, the Adolf Grimme Institute and the institute of adult education’.'

The multi-media project aimed at providing ideas for conscious and active ways of dealing with growing older and wanted to promote the effective representation of old people's interests.

The instruments
The Second German Television produced seven feature films on the following subjects:

- The relationship of older to younger people
- Partnership in old age
- How old people live
- The financial situation in old age
- Coming to terms with death
- Women growing older
- Going into retirement
- Elderly people's self-help groups

It was intended that the plot should offer an opportunity for identification and provide emotional ideas for discussion in the adult education courses. A paperback - a print of 65,000 copies - was meant to introduce people to the subject by means of examples, illustrations and photos. Material for discussion leaders was devised as working material and gave them additional hints on the media and other written matter. The meetings in further education were intended to make people start talking; they were the place where information could be given, where discussions on the subjects brought up in the films or by the participants took place.

‘Un-Ruhestand’ was - even though there were a number of smaller and larger problems in implementing it - one of the most successful multi-media projects in the area of social learning. More than 4,000 discussion circles involving well over 40,000 participants took place as part of this project from 1980 to 1982.

- The project had a sufficiently long preliminary phase; it was possible to intensively prepare personnel from adult education and to carefully organise the coordination of the constituent parts;
- The discussion leaders had a chance to make use of the individual parts of the multi-media programme according to their requirements and those of the participants, because it was conceived so that it was didactically flexible;
- The interest of those involved was addressed by the subjects of the multi-media programme.’(Paulkens, H, 1993)

‘Alphabetisierung’, (Literacy campaign; 1984 - 1988)
Sources of information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target audience: Adults
Focus: Literacy

The following example has been extracted from the same paper and is presented here in full.

Unlike the integrated media project (described above, which had a strong didactic component and in which the television films were also planned as instructional material, the aims of the project with the title Writing and Reading For All were:

- to use the opportunities offered by radio and television to inform and enlighten the public and the social groups concerned on the problem of functional illiteracy in the industrialised nations; and
- to motivate the target group, which meant encouraging adult illiterates to take
- part in reading and writing courses at institutes of further education.'

The instruments
The TV spots:
The Norddeutscher Rundfunk and the Westdeutscher Rundfunk produced 12 fiveminute television spots. They were also transmitted in Hesse and Bavaria. Various TV personalities (e.g. Dagmar Berghoff, Gdtz George, Eberhard Feik, Willi Millowitsch and others) gave basic information on the causes, extent and distribution of illiteracy, the conditions under which it arises and possible ways of effectively combating it. Prominent people from television were chosen to increase the intended effectiveness of the spots and also to bolster the credibifity of the information, which at first seemed implausible to the great majority of viewers.

In addition, those affected presented their individual problem area. This was meant to strengthen motivation and appeal and to encourage people to take advantage of appropriate learning courses in Adult Education Colleges and other adult education institutes.

In a final service section the TV personalities pointed out the courses offered in further education and gave a telephone number under which illiterate viewers, their friends and acquaintances could obtain information and advice.

Telephone counselling:
The telephone counselling centres were as a rule located at the regional offices of the Adult Education Colleges. Their purpose was to give information on appropriate courses available. It could be felt in the case of most of the callers, the telephone counsellors reported, how difficult those concerned found the first call. Often partners, acquaintances or relatives would call on their behalf. Some callers only wanted brief information on courses offered in their area; others, after a short time, were describing their situation and problems with great urgency.

Material for local and regional public relations:
In addition to the mass media radio and television, material was developed by the Adolf Grimme Institute for local public relations. Not only data and facts but also interviews and conversations with German illiterates on the causes and background were printed and prepared for the local press.

In this prospectus the integrated media did not mean didactically conceiving teaching and learning courses aiming at making the learning and teaching process more effective; it was, rather, a matter of using the media-specific opportunities offered by radio and television to point out a problem and ways of solving it.

Integrated media was understood as a campaign. This was developed to produce learning conditions for educationally and socially disadvantaged people which encourage autonomy, self-esteem and the ability to act on one's own authority.

The success
The television spots - broadcast in the Third Programmes - were seen by 2% - 15% of the viewers. Altogether the television spots reached more than 13 million viewers. Over 5,000 potential participants rang up the telephone counselling centres. In the service area of the Norddeutscher Rundfunk (Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, Berlin and Lower Saxony) the number of participants doubled, for example. Here the cooperation between the broadcasting organisations and adult education was also successful. Thus from the first considerations, producing a self learning concept and a television reading and writing course was not pursued, and the idea of using spots was jointly developed.

The reasons for the success are to be found, in my opinion, in the mutual acceptance on the part of the participants. The adult education representatives realised the efficiency of television, just as the producers in the broadcasting organisations concentrated on their strengths by not backing a course concept for people unused to learning and recognised that teaching competence should come from the adult education institutes’.(Paulkens, H, 1993, p. 133-135)

Upper East and Upper West Regions Water Utilization Project
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

‘Content: Water hand-pump installation and maintenance; water education for health; water-related diseases and health and hygiene practises
Audience: Villagers in Upper West and Upper East Region; Community Water Organisers; village leaders
Distance education methods used: Radio; self-study printed materials - manuals for field staff, picture-books, demonstration posters etc., study groups, trained study group leaders
Governance: Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation, Upper Regional Administrations; URA Radio
History and impact: Started with water hand-pump installation 1973-81; general community education programme 1977-84; water education for health programme 1985-90; radio beaming campaign 1986-90. More than 5 000 Community Water Organisers trained and active in water education for health activities throughout the two Upper Regions by 1990, working with a population of more than 700 000 people benefiting from the water hand-pumps which had been issued. Still in operation’. (Dodds, T, 1996, p.8)

HONDURAS
Sources of information: Literature
Technology: Radio
Target audience: Out-of-school youth and young adults (14-29) in employment with minimal skills
Focus: English, Mathematics, Spanish, Social Science, Business and Vocational Education, designed separately for levels1-6.

Following on from work done to support mathematics in primary schools using Interactive Radio Instruction a LearnTech IRI project for basic primary education for out-of school youth and young adults was launched in 1992. Motivation for this project was articulated as follows:

Honduras is characterised by a young population which is already in the labour force but which has low productivity. This population has not had the opportunity to acquire the essential tools and attitudes necessary for economic growth. The Basic Education for All Project is predicated on the conviction that educational investment in basic education for these young working people could effectively accelerate economic and social development. (Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

The project was designed to be a permanent project for delivering basic education to out-of-school young adults. A number of support agencies were necessary for this (ministry of Education, private company with IRI experience, international donors, and civic or community organisations like municipalities).(Corrales, C., 1995, p.6) The project drew on an existing educational network of programmes, although the formal system for adult learning in Honduras was essentially non-functional and inappropriate. A radio facilitator was used and given training on the operation of the programme, use of print materials and post-broadcast activities. The facilitators were usually someone from the community who had completed primary school. Some facilitators worked as volunteers, but most received a small salary. Radio groups met in school buildings community centres or people’s homes. Print materials were distributed before the broadcast.

In the case study report it was observed that audiocassette could be effectively used for the same purpose as the radio broadcasts. In fact, four of the literacy centres made use of cassettes, due to weak radio signals in their area. The use of audiocassettes for large numbers of centres was not thought to be cost effective, as when electricity was not available, the participants had to use batteries. Audiocassettes use more power than radios, and so batteries went flat sooner. (Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

The production cycle for materials included: applied research; curriculum development; script writing; radio production; evaluation; field testing; printed materials. Despite some initial training in these areas, it was soon identified that training needs were ongoing and could be categorised as follows:

- Materials development training;
- Training for staff at the Ministry of Education; and
- Training for facilitators such as radio facilitators and town mayors.(Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

Before instructional design for the radio broadcasts and printed support materials could be conducted, the curriculum for adults and out-of school youth needed to be adapted. The existing official adult education curriculum was only a shortened version of the primary school curriculum for children. This was a problem as prior research indicated that targeted group had a considerable body of knowledge and experience which had not been taken into account in the official curriculum. (Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

The design of the first three levels - the radio lesson was to be the main medium of instruction with print materials taking on a complementary, but secondary role. Each level had 100 thirty-minute radio programmes with about 60 pages of printed materials. A social values theme was woven into the radio lessons for the first and second levels. For example, a series of segments about the rights of women and children in the legal system of Honduras usually started with a dramatic story that depicted a common problem they faced. This was followed by a short discussion about the implicit social values. (Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

For levels four through six a similar approach was adopted, although print played a more dominant role. The project had to adapt the school curriculum which was designed for children, for : "young adults" with a second chance of completing primary school, most of whom were living in rural areas and had some work experience. To achieve this a "dramatic setting" intended to resemble a small rural town was created. The lesson took place with two couples attending a radio school, overseen by a teacher. One couple was young and the other older. Occasionally My Chago, a grandfather figure who represented the community collective wisdom was included. (Corrales, C., 1995, p.6)

The following examples of Indian initiative that make use of broadcasting technologies for education have been extracted directly from a recent conference paper.(Dighe, A. & Reddi, U., 1999)

Deccan Development Society
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Video
Target audience: Rural women
Focus: Video production focusing on gender justice, environmental soundness and people’s knowledge.

‘Objectives:
The Deccan Development Society (DDS) working in the backward Zaheerabad district of Andhra Pradesh started with the objective of combining employment parameters to regenerate the livelihoods of the people in the area through a string of activities. DDS works with a group of 100 women’s groups consisting of nearly 4000 members in 75 villages. The women form the poorest sections of the rural community with an average family income (mostly from farm labour work) ranging from Rs600 (US$14) to Rs1200 (US$28) per month depending on the seasons of the year. Among the many objectives of the group, one objective was to transfer people oriented technology. Activities centred around gender justice, environmental soundness and people’s knowledge. Starting with the assumption that literacy was not the only choice, because literacy can become a constraint for non literate people whose aural and visual narratives are very powerful, workers at the DDS felt that providing video and audio technologies as a means of expression for the disadvantaged rural women could be an exciting idea. The women chose to learn video production for various reasons such as communication of views, shooting visual footage at appropriate time rather than when teams come form outside villages; recording what "big government officials say and keeping a record of it".

Methodology:
Training of women over a series of video workshops was done with very simple video cameras and a makeshift editing set up. The methodology used consisted of group discussions, visual explanations, creation of technical vocabulary in the local language, hands on training and group analysis. After learning the process, women had filmed one aspect of their community activity - the pre school for their children and its significance for their lives.

Lessons learnt:
Video can be a very effective tool for use by non literate rural people to express themselves to the outside world. Being non literate is no barrier to learning video as a mode of expression. Therefore instead of literacy being pushed down the throats of adult rural women and men, new media of expression can be found. What is important to recognise is that to be effectively literate is a generational effort. In the meanwhile people of the middle generation who are past their teens should not be made to feel sub humans because they are not literate. If they are given the tools of expression, their confidence can be rebuild and literacy can follow as they start effectively communicating with the outside world. Video can be one such tool which they can easily master and handle. As the women get equipped with the capacities to express their thoughts, their knowledge and their vision of their future through picture and sound, a major breakthrough can be made in providing a technology for the education of the deprived rural communities. And for the education of the outside world about what these communities are capable of’.(Dighe, A. & Reddi, U., 1999)

Project in Radio Education for Adult Literacy (PREAL) 1990-91
Source of Information: Conference paper
Technology: Radio
Target Audience: Adults
Focus: Literacy

PREAL was a collaborative project of National Literacy Mission, India and All India Radio.

‘Objectives:
To examine the possibility of using radio to impart literacy by reinforcing the reading ability among learners through instructional radio programmes.

Methodology:
This project was one instance of successful inter-institutional cooperation between several educational and broadcasting agencies. The programme was spread over the four Hindi speaking states of Bihar, Rajasthan, U.P. and Madhya Pradesh and covered 3600 Adult Education Centres who provided Radio cum Cassette Recorders (RCCPs). Eight AIR stations participated in the experiment. Twenty-six weekly radio lessons were broadcast from each station with a repeat broadcast of each lesson every week. Programme format ensured that instructional content was intertwined with music, humour and emotional expression. A specially designed radio reader was provided for each instructor (who was given specially designed training inputs through radio).

Findings:
A content analysis of the programmes found that programmes were largely interactive with dialogue, stories, or talks. Most of the programmes aimed at creating awareness about important day to day issues of immediate relevance to rural people. While broadcast were regular, reception was clear, programmes were easy to understand and follow, the extent of exposure among learners was limited. Despite the availability of RCCPs, audience preference was for the broadcast mode-as opposed to the non broadcast mode (which has its own advantages)’.(Dighe, A. & Reddi, U., 1999)

Jhabua Development Communications Project (JDCP)
Source of Information: Conference paper
Technology: Satellite Television Broadcasts
Target Audience: Block and village level functionaries
Focus: Health, agriculture, watershed management etc.

Objectives:
The objectives of the Jhabua Development Communications Project (JDCP) is to Work towards a satellite based communications system that reaches out to rural areas to support development. Based on the experiences of satellite broadcasting (SITE) and interactive training (TDCC), the Jhubua Development Communications Project (JDCP).

Methodology
Since November 1996, Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU) of the Indian Space Research Organisation (IRSO), Ahmedabad, has been carrying out the Jhabua development related programs has been going on in the areas of health, agriculture, watershed management, panchayati raj, education, etc. The interactive training program (ITP), is also a major component of the JDCP in which a one way video and two way audio teleconferencing network is utilized to provide interactive training to block and village level functionaries. Satellite based talk-back terminals have been provided to all the twelve blocks of Jhabua for ITP. The project is being implemented with the support of the Madhya Pradesh government and Jhabua district level authorities. Apart from the internal staff, a host of external producers and research organizations have been involved in the project and regular feedback obtained. Various research and evaluations studies are also being carried out. Originally, a two-year project, its duration has been extended by another year and its area of coverage is also proposed to be expanded. Direct reception sets will soon be installed in all 612 panchayats. In fact, Jhabua will be the first district in the country with a community TV in all the panchayats.

Lessons learnt:
Jhabua district has a tribal population and is one of the most backward districts of madhya Pradesh. This communications project has shown that even though television attracts rural audiences initially, sustaining their motivation to watch television regularly, is not easy. The project has highlighted the importance of careful planning and of the need to situate such a project within a larger development framework.

All-India Radio(AIR) Farm and Home Broadcasts of the Air Development
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

‘Content: agricultural crop production techniques; agro-enterprise agricultural and social and rural development; home-improvement and maintenance; health and hygiene
Audience: farmers, farmers families, farm labourers and other adults in rural areas covered by up to 73 All India Radio (AIR) stations (1987)
Distance education methods used: regular radio series; published versions of the radio programmes; organised village study-groups (charcha mandal); linkage with agricultural and rural development extension workers
Governance: AIR local stations, linked to national network, working closely with Ministry of Agriculture and other Ministries and local extension agencies and local authorities
History and impact: The AIR Farm and Home Broadcast Units, and the Farm School of the Air grew out of AIR's early experiments with Radio Rural Forums from 1956 onwards. The expansion in the 1970s and 1980s was to some extent stimulated by India's concentration on increasing food production. These programmes were still very widespread by the end of the 1980s though there is evidence of declining audiences and coverage in the 1990s’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.21)

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Farm School of the Air
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

‘Content: modern farming and cultivation, water management, low-cost technology etc.
Audience: farmers and their families in Tamil Nadu
Distance education methods used: radio series, television series, printed support and self-study materials, study-group discussion meetings, occasional face-to-face tutorials
Distance education methods used: radio series, television series, printed support and self-study materials, study-group discussion meetings, occasional face-to-face tutorials
Governance: run by a department of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in association with State broadcasting agencies
History and impact: the programme grew out of the national AIR Farin School of the Air progrwnme (see above); Tamil Nadu Agricultural University established in 1971; it took over responsibility for the Farm School of the Air for the State’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.22)

IRELAND
Source of information: E-mail correspondence
Technology: Television
Target audience: Adults
Focus: Tele-courses, languages and hobbies

Radio Telefis Éireann (RTE) runs various educational broadcasting interventions directed at adults. The main focus areas for these programmes are United States of America telecourses, Language series and some leisure related Irish produced programmes like Simply Painting. It has supported the broadcast interventions with print and phone-ins in the past and is currently exploring the possible use of the Internet. All RTE adult broadcasting is intended for home viewing, although it is anticipated that the broadcasts can be used synchronously or asynchronously. Some reasons for the success of two RTE examples were described as follows:

- LearnNet was a live weekly programme which [was] broadcast for three seasons and which got a good response mainly because of the variety of material it contained
- Simply Painting is popular series, largely because of the personality of the presenter and the general interest in painting/art.’(MacMahon, J. e-mail responce to questionnaire, recieved on 2/2/1999)

JAPAN
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Television, HDTV transmission
Target Audience: Adults
Focus: Correspondence courses, general culture, hobbies, welfare-oriented programmes for the elderly and languages courses

The following extract describes NHK, the Japanese National Broadcaster:

NHK is Japan's only public broadcaster, with a history of well over half a century, and it is financed mainly by receiving fees. On its nation-wide networks, NHK currently operates two satellite TV channels, two terrestrial TV channels, and three radio services. One of the two terrestrial TV channels is used by NHK's general programme output, which broadcasts mainly news and entertainment programmes for the general audience, and the other channel is devoted to educational television, with programmes related to education of various sorts. Having a channel exclusively for educational purposes, which started 30 years ago, is a major feature of NHK. Educational television is broadcast daily for a total of 18 hours, from six in the morning until twelve midnight. Its programmes are full of variety (Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.124).

While NHK focuses on school television it also has programmes for ‘children and teenagers (which are) to be viewed at home’(Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.124), and programmes for life-long education, which it subdivided in to the following categories:

- General culture courses which feature lectures from well-known authorities.
- Courses on hobbies.
- Welfare-oriented programmes for the elderly, which for example teach sign language for the hearing impaired in addition to basic knowledge about social welfare and nursing care techniques. Other programmes show senior citizens enjoying life by keeping busy in various activities.
- Language courses. ‘Learning foreign languages is regarded by many Japanese as a sure way to improve international understanding. In response, NHK broadcasts ten language courses, with the main emphasis on English. There are also Japanese language courses for foreign residents in Japan. (Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.126).

In addition ‘programmes for young mothers and children at home, including cartoons and children's cooking lessons, are broadcast every evening’. (Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.125-126).
Some explanation on the rationale for this focus on lifelong learning is evident in this extract:

So-called lifelong learning has become very popular in Japan today, which is rapidly becoming an aging society. With the life expectancy for Japanese men reaching 76.1 years and that for Japanese women 82.1 years, people are becoming more concerned about how to enjoy their lives after retirement. For this reason, a growing number of Japanese are taking interest in lifelong education, and their demand for related educational programmes on television and radio is on the rise. As NHK's educational programmes meet this demand in their function as a useful source of educational and cultural information, they are frequently watched by adult learners.

The following table, reflects the breakdown of programme transmission in terms of the above categorization:(Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.126).

All NHK Educational broadcasts productions are supported by:

• Publication of textbooks, ‘containing a synopsis of each programme, supplementary material and broadcasting schedule so that viewers can prepare themselves before watching the programme and thus understand it better’.(Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.127).

• ‘In the case of programme series, a committee is set up consisting of users, educational experts and production staff to discuss whether the programmes are satisfactory to the viewers, and whether the programme contents are suitable. In addition, symposiums on the use of programmes are held from time to time, and producers may take this opportunity to make suggestions on the educational effectiveness of the programmes’.(Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.127).

• Wide range of media mix activities. ‘NHK makes full use of high-tech new media in preparing value-added teaching materials. For example, broadcast programmes are repackaged as videotapes or videodisks, to expand the learning environment by allowing multilateral and deeper study’.(Fukishuma, Y., 1993, p.127).

African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF)
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

‘Content: Health worker continuing education and training; primary and community health care, common diseases, family planning, environmental health etc.
Audience: rural health workers, nurses, paramedics, public health technicians, laboratory technicians, nutrition field workers etc.
Distance education methods used: correspondence courses, primary health care textbooks and pamphlets; radio series, audio cassettes (temporary experiment, discontinued through lack of resources), practical field demonstrations
Governance: AMREF is an international non-government organisation, based in Kenya, operating throughout East Africa, especially Uganda and Tanzania and in other neighbouring countries; co-operates with Ministries of Health and with NGO health services
History and impact: AMREF founded in 1957; carried out baseline study of education and training status of rural health workers in 1978; launched its correspondence course in 1980 and its radio programmes in 1987; evaluation study conducted in 199314. In January 1995 it had enrolled 6615 participants on its courses of whom 2 492 had completed courses and 4 090 were still active students; wide evidence of improved knowledge and practice on the part of successful students; students receive certificate of completion which often helps in career development though they are not intended and do not count as formal qualifications’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.9-10)

‘Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC) (NFE Literacy and Service Agency Programmes Division)
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

Content: literacy and numeracy for out-of-school youth and adults in rural areas; agriculture, health, local income-generating crafts (weaving, crochet, sewing) first aid.
Audience: adults and young adults in rural areas; members and leaders and extension workers of local NG0s; government extension agents; special emphasis on and provision for women's education in rural areas.
Distance education methods used: self-study printed materials: booklets, posters, primers etc.; radio series; support materials for local study-group leaders and "learning post' workers; access to a small revolving credit fund and loans scheme for groups beaming and implementing new income-generating projects
Governance: LDTC is a unit of the Ministry of Education with responsibility for non-formal education. It enjoys a degree of internal autonomy derived from its original status as a parastatal agency. It collaborates closely with other government agencies and NGOs especially in relation to its service agency work
History and impact: LDTC started its non-formal education programmes soon after its establishment in 1974; two important features guided its NFE work through its flat decade - careful research and testing and needs assessment studies; and the development of a service-agency self-financing philosophy. In recent years the literacy and NFE programmes have suffered from lack of finance, personnel and facilities. The Service Agency approach, however, has remained an important source of finance and a morale booster for LDTC. Programmes in NFE continue to be a significant part of LDTC's output’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.10-11)

Mauritius College of the Air (MCA)
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio and television

‘Content: (in the recent past) mother and childcare, health education including aids prevention; consumer affairs; road safety. (Currently) post-literacy course in English; introduction to information technology for home-workers; manipulation, utilisation and maintenance of A/V equipment
Audience: adults with limited formal education; newly literate industrial workers; school caretakers/attendants
Distance education methods used: audio and video cassettes; television and radio series; self-study print materials; phone-in facilities linked to broadcasts; occasional face-to-face tutorials/study-group meetings.
Governance: MCA is a parastatal agency part-funded by the Ministry of Education; works in collaboration with other Ministries, and government and non-government agencies and the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation.
History and impact: MCA was founded in 1972 with a commitment to experiment with distance education for both formal and non-formal education; throughout the 1970’s and 1980s it carried out a series of experimental media-supported educational projects for a variety of ministries and purposes; more carefully structured distance education approaches are now being built into new programmes through the MCA’s newly-established distance education division ’. (Dodds, T, 1996, p.11)

Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Radio IRI
Target Audience: Women caregivers who had poor literacy skills, minimal training
Focus: ECD, nutrition, health and gender

This Interactive Radio Instruction project was modelled on similar ECD project in Bolivia. It had increased emphasis on nutrition health and gender. It was run by UNICEF and radio Nepal, piloted in 1996 and scheduled to go to scale in mid-1997. (Bosch, A., 1997, p.10)

Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Television and radio
Target Audience: Adults
Focus: Varied

The following is a recent description of Teleac/NOT with a specific focus on its adult educational broadcasting

Teleac/NOT arose from the merger of the educational broadcasting organisation Teleac and Dutch Schools Television NOT. An autonomous foundation Teleac/NOT has a permanent staff of some two hundred and also employs many specialist freelancers. Our revenues come from TV and radio licence fees, grants for particular projects and sponsoring. We also generate income from the publication and sale of course-books and other educational material.(Schippers, K., e-mail recieved, 28/4/1999)

Every year almost 9 million people follow courses with Teleac/NOT. Transmitting 450 hours of television and 350 hours radio, we are the major educational broadcaster catering to people of all ages in the Netherlands. Our audience is very broad: besides encompassing all age groups, it includes people from a wide variety of backgrounds and with various levels of education. Whenever possible, we adopt a multimedia approach in our highly varied offering of programmes. Benefiting of our experience of more than thirty years and always based on thorough research, our programmes and support materials incorporate the best and most effective insights of modern educational practice. Our programmes come in a variety of formats. Some are series of slef-contained programmes organised around a single theme and taking a common approach, with support materials, such as books, CD-ROMS, teacher manuals etc. Other programmes have a magazine-type format, broadcast weekly with more or less the same structure and aimed at a regular audience. To fully meet the varied demands of the market, we have organised our programming for adult education into a number of sectors: Culture & Science, Hobby & Leisure, People & Society, Foreign Languages, Programmes for Newcomers and the World of Business and the Professions.(Schippers, K., e-mail recieved, 28/4/1999)

The types of programmes broadcast for each category are described in this extract:

1. Business or Business-oriented Courses
Some examples are courses on Marketing, Desk Top Publishing and Database Management. Books and sometimes software are available and a final examination completes the course. Those who pass it receive a certificate of participation.
2. Languages
Apart from a book, language courses always include audio-material. Previously this consisted only of cassettes, but more recently we have also used Compact Discs. The language courses we publish and broadcast are produced for various levels and vary in scope. There are small, simple holiday courses such as Andiamo; beginners’ courses in Greek and Portuguese; advanced language courses such as French for commerce and work but also extensive courses for Italian, Russian and even Chinese.
3. Hobbies and Leisure
A few examples under this heading are courses such as Drawing and Painting, Landscape Drawing and Painting, Calligraphy, Handicrafts, Designing your Own Clothes, and Snooker.
4. Culture and Science
This includes courses on culture, history and natural sciences. Some examples are: The Middle Ages, The Roman World, From Quantum to Quark, Cities and their Past, Modern Art and Biotechnology.
5. Man and Society
This includes courses on health and important social issues, such as Information on Aids, Stop Smoking, Learn how to Sleep, Information on Social Security and other issues.(van der Eng, H., 1993, p142-143)

In the following extract van der Eng explains the way in which Teleac has used the various media in its courses:

It should be pointed out here that the media I have referred to play different roles in the project. The book provides the student with all the necessary information. Television is used in particular to motivate and to encourage students but can also be employed to demonstrate things impossible to visualise in a book. The radio lessons are usually aimed at giving additional information and - especially in the case of language courses - to provide the student with all kinds of speech and listening exercises.(van der Eng, H., 1993, p142-143)

While Schippers describes Teleac/NOT’s more recent use of other technologies as follows:

The new development is the introduction of Internet in our services. Sometimes connected with our programmes, sometimes as a provider of services. The aim of the Teleac/NOT website is:

1. Information. (on programmes etc.)
2. Services (forums, order books, questions)
3. Education (on-line courses)
4. Communication (with the client)
We also sell videocassettes of the programmes.(Schippers, K., e-mail recieved, 28/4/1999)

Teleac works in assignment teams and gives the following estimated for production cycles for adult educational broadcasting course development:

The production period for a complete course, i.e. the radio and television broadcasts and the book, varies from around eight months, for courses of only 4 or 6 lessons, to two years for more complex courses of 16 or more lessons. It ought to be pointed out, however, that the members of these teams seldom work on just one course at a time. Usually they work on two or more projects.

Once the production is completed, the radio and television programmes are transmitted on the public network - currently on Channel 2. The books and other course materials are sold via bookshops or a mail-order system. In this way we sell between 140,000 and 200,000 course packages each year in Holland and Flanders. The population in this area is around 15 million. About 70% of the courses are sold via bookshops and about 30% via mail-order.(van der Eng, H., 1993, p144)

An example of one of Teleacs multimedia projects is Music in the Netherlands, which was transmitted in spring 1991. It dealt with the history of music and the way music was made in the Netherlands from I 100 A.D. to the present day. Each episode was dedicated to a special theme, like The Music of the Court, Street Music, Church Music, and so forth. The course consisted of 10 television lessons, 10 radio lessons, a large course book and 5 compact discs.(van der Eng, H., 1993, p142-143) The compact discs were recordings of the music.

Some of the more current success stories are described below:

The most successful educational broadcasting interventions at the moment are:

• Knot in your handkerchief, a unique programme, which is the only one on Durch television. It is specially aimed at people with a mental disability. It’s success is due in part its very enthusiastic exclusive target-group, and as it has political support as it is seen ‘as a way of legitimation of the public broadcaster, spending time and money on a small target group’.

• Computer Plus is a programme to show people that you can do a lot more with computers. The series is accompanied by a coursebook as well as two CD-ROMS full of software, which allow viewers to practise at their leisure what they have learnt during each programmes. [It has] high ratings and high sales of support materials.

• Drawing and painting [is a series on painting with] with acrylic paint. An artist explains the technicalities of working with acrylic paint, drawing on his wealth of personal experience to reveal the ‘tricks of the trade’. The same reasons of success: high ratings and sales of materials.(Schippers, K., e-mail recieved, 28/4/1999)

 

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) - The Marshal Plan of the Mind (MPM) Trust
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio and television

‘Content: business education in the market economy; personal finance; agriculture and agricultural produce processing; effective business management; how democracy works
Audience: Russian local radio and television adult audiences
Distance education methods used: radio and television programme series; soap operas, documentaries; printed study texts and guide books and magazines; (in some cases) cassette copies of programmes
Governance: the project is run by a registered charitable trust (BBC WM Trust) drawing on BBC Overseas Service expertise etc; programmes are broadcast through local radio and television stations in Russia, Ukraine, Uzbeldstan and (planned) Romania; support materials are prepared by BBC MPM and printed locally. Funding from the British government and the European Union.
History and impact: BBC MPM was set up in 1992. First programmes broadcast in 1993. Evidence of very large audiences’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.37)

Source of information: Meeting with Dr Buddhi Weersinghe (director of educational technology at the Open University of Sri Lanka), literature.
Technology: Radio and television

Sri Lanka has six television, and about four radio, channels. All of these offer some educational programmes in a non-structured way. The state-owned public television broadcaster is Sri Lanka Rupavahini, while the state-owned radio is Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation. Both have a separate education section which co-ordinates educational programmes that are usually of a general nature. The format of the educational programmes varies with documentaries, lectures, and discussion programmes being common. Recently discussion programmes on the content for the University entrance examinations have been broadcast. These have had limited phone-in interaction. Dr Weersinghe did not think that this was effective as, people who may have needed to have a question answered, may not have had a telephone. Negotiations with a Japanese company to start a separate educational television channel, are currently underway. Should this channel be established, the Open University and the National Institute of Education would be given air time for their own broadcasts.

Non-formal educational radio broadcasts have been broadcast in Sri Lanka since 1927. The state radio has recently restructured to have a separate educational channel called ‘Educational Service Channel’. Programmes are generally for incidental learning. Radio programmes for language teaching (both Tamil and English) for low level professionals, who may want to improve their language skills for their work, seem to have been popular. The programmes are not part of a structured language course, but have been designed for incidental learning. Educational radio tends to be discussions (either panel or phone-ins) on topics of interest to parents, teachers and students. There are also short programmes on ‘value inculcation’. Children’s stories and theatre radio programmes, which are broadcast in the evenings, have been well received. This has been particularly successful with pre-primary school children. In some programmes children are brought into the studio and contribute to the production.

Printed schedules of educational radio and television broadcasts are distributed to schools, but no other non-broadcasting support is given. At one stage printed notes were distributed to support secondary schools curriculum broadcasts. This did not last long, probably as a result of financial constraints. (This cause was postulated by Dr Weersinghe)

Educational broadcasting has not been generally well received in Sri Lanka. Despite various efforts to get schools equipped with televisions and radios, the broadcasts do not seem to be widely used. Only about 10% of schools in Sri Lanka have reported making use of educational broadcasts(This is a estimate by Dr Weersinghe). In the late 1970’s a state sponsored project to get schools equipped, and for students to stay for broadcasts in the afternoons, was soon discontinued due to a lack of attendance. Dr Weersinghe does not think that lack of equipment is the major inhibiting factor, but that the quality of the material may be the main problem.

Sources of Information: Web sites and literature
Technology: Radio and television

The Swedish Educational Broadcasting Corporation or Sveriges Utbildningsradio, which is often referred to as UR, describes itself as:

a designer, producer, broadcaster and distributor of educational materials in Sweden. UR is one of three companies that make up Sweden’s public broadcasting system… UR broadcasts on both public TV channels and on Sweden’s four public radio channels as well as on Teletext TV…UR is also fully equipped with advanced modern technical facilities for terrestrial and satellite transmissions and is introducing digital radio and TV broadcasts during 1997. UR has its own publishing house. (Swedish Educational Broadcasting Company: http://www.ur.se/)

The way in which UR distributes and makes available its products is interesting:

Sweden has a network of municipal audio-visual media centres that make UR’s products available to schools and other educational organizations. Within this network UR arranges educational activities in conjunction with programmes...URīs programmes are available to borrow from public libraries in Sweden. Teachers or study group leaders can borrow UR programmes at one of the approximately 60 audio-visual centres scattered throughout Sweden. Nearly 7,000 programmes from UR are available.

It seems to be financed through legislated television licensing:

UR is financed through a user fee that each household with one or more TV-sets pays in Sweden. The size of the fee and the amount of it that goes to public broadcasting is determined by Sweden’s Parliament. For the year 1997 UR gets about 250 million Swedish crowns for its operation. (Swedish Educational Broadcasting Company: http://www.ur.se/)

The relative weighting of radio and television broadcasts are made clear in this statement:
UR broadcasts at least 700 hours of TV annually and 1700 hours of radio, of which approximately 900 are broadcast regionally.
The programmes (sic) deal with many subject areas - for example,

- languages;
- nature;
- the environment;
- culture;
- society;
- economics;
- technology; and
- telecommunications. (Swedish Educational Broadcasting Company: http://www.ur.se/)

The following example focuses on foreign language teaching, but illustrates the way in which UR adopts a mixed-media approach to its educational interventions. The three units of UR focusing on schools, adult education courses and language teaching each have access to all media and can therefore create multi-media projects. A course in Russian called Pozjalujsta illustrates this approach. This project was launched in autumn of 1991 as was inline with the foreign language units policy to ‘provide opportunities to adults - late in life - to learn a foreign language’(Horneij, R., 1993, p.166). The target student was seen as a ‘a man or woman in the middle of life, working, with children, maybe with ageing parents to look after - with very little spare time, and to a large extent, no previous study practice’.(Horneij, R., 1993, p.166)

The course was split into two parts with the first being an overture presenting the Russian alphabet together with a phrase book. The 33 Russian letters were presented in six television programmes in which the two main characters for the whole course: a Russian singer and her pupil, who was a well known Swedish TV personality. the programme was broadcast next to peak time and were backed up in the form of a booklet and audiocassette for pronunciation. These audiocassette and booklet could be used independently of the television broadcast to achieve the learning goal. For the second part, video footage filmed in Russia that had been produced by Finnish television was acquired. This extract described the programmes for this second part:

We created a pedagogical situation on the screen: A living-room, a videocassette player, the Russian singer Jelena and the publicly known humorous personality Tappas. She teaches him Russian and his role is that of interested ‘average’ learner. Her teaching material is the video player, and they look at scenes from the Soviet Union. It is a story of a Finn going by train to Moscow. The television audience is invited to share the learning experience with Jelena and Tappas…The principal [sic] is that each chapter in the new course is introduced by a television programme where two programme leaders look at the filmed story, comment on it, explain linguistic items and finally view the whole story again. Graphics are used extensively…We have found that television does not lend itself to inviting the audience to be active in the sense of producing phrases or pronouncing words aloud for example. Television has to be backed up by other means…The way the ideal learner is supposed to act goes from:

- firstly - watching television to
- secondly - listening to the radio, with the book in his or her hand.(Horneij, R., 1993, p.166)

In each chapter of the book there is one 30-minute television programme and four 20- minute radio programmes. The television dialogue forms the nucleus as it presents the language that is studied. This dialogue is also printed in books and recorded for use in the radio programmes. In addition to this resource support, audiences are encouraged to join study circles and the national network of audio-visual centres may record the tapes for distribution to educational institutions. A teacher’s guide is included and weekend courses at adult education centres are held, where UR’s role is to recruit participants using the broadcast media.

Brevskolan/Swedish Workers Education Association (ABF)
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Television

‘Content: public issues; trade union education; workers education; political education
Audience: members of trade unions, cooperatives, political parties and the general
public, normally organised in study circles
Distance education methods used: printed study-guides; closely linked to radio and television series; organised discussion in study circles; training programmes and materials for study circle leaders
Governance: ABF is one of the ten Swedish national education associations which promote non-formal adult education through study circles; Brevskolan is its distance education materials publishing house; it works very closely with the Social Democratic Party, the Trade Unions, the Cooperative movement and with national radio and television broadcasting agencies; it receives public funding for this work but is an independent organisation
History and impact: the origins of this kind of activity in Sweden go back to the 1890s and early 1900s. Brevskolan was established in 1919, the ABF in 1912. By 1987 ABF claimed to be responsible for 120 000 study circles (one third of study circles in Sweden at the time) for which Brevskolan claimed to provide 65% of the study materials. This very large scale programme continues to the present’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.38)

Co-operative College Directorate of Field Education
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

Content: cooperative education and awareness; elementary book-keeping, co-operative management
Audience: members, potential members, committee members, managers and staff of cooperative societies
Distance education methods used: printed correspondence courses, study and discussion guides, radio series, study circles and individual study
Governance: the programme is run by a department or directorate of the National Correspondence College, Moshi; it is a parastatal responsible to the Ministry of Cooperatives
History and impact: established as the Cooperative Education Centre, parallel to but independent of the Cooperative College in 1965, it started to pioneer programmes of correspondence/radio/study-group discussions for cooperative members and leaders. In the 1970s it was absorbed into the Cooperative College but continued the same kind of programmes. It became the Directorate- of Field Education in 1993. By 1992 50 000 students had been enrolled for the book-keeping and management courses, and more than I 000 study groups had completed study-group courses’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.17)

BBC
Source of Information: Literature
Technology: Television
Target audience: General and FET
Focus: Health (teenage pregnancy, smoking, child accident prevention, counselling), encouraging reading, curriculum material

Wright finds that categorising the BBCs educational broadcasting for Adult and Continuing Education is more difficult than characterising its school broadcasting, saying the former varies from programmes which:

- form part of a course intended to help people acquire a knowledge or skill, for example learning a foreign language;
- encourage social action or change by helping people improve the quality of their lives or their environment through health education, child accident prevention or being more environmentally aware;
- simply provide vocational education and on-the-job training; to
programmes which simply help people acquire or deepen an interest in, for example, gardening, cooking, literature or what ever. (Wright, B., 1993, p.57)

Examples of successful educational broadcasts in the United Kingdom include:

A small dance was a one part educational drama, by Thames TV, that told of a teenage girl who fell pregnant and abandoned her baby. It was broadcast on prime time in 1992, and was accompanied by supporting publications and a telephone helpline.
The last cigarette, also by Thames TV was a 90 minute light entertainment special, shown on National No-Smoking Day and repeated later in the year. Immediate response to a telephone helpline to the repeat broadcast came in the form of 60 000 attempted calls. In addition, 25 000 information packs were distributed on request.
Play it safe, a BBC Education series of a documentary followed by eight programmes of ten minutes each, on child accident prevention, was very popular. It was supported by a range of backup material and linked to a national campaign. The series created substantial demand for support material and more detailed information.(Meyer, M., 1998, p.8) Programmes were transmitted at peak-viewing times on Sundays and were presented by a well-known television celebrity.(Wright, B., 1993, p.57)
Read and Write Together (see comments below)was a week of programming broadcast in February 1995. Three 60-second shorts, screened on BBC1, were scattered through the schedule at peak viewing time. The aim was to use the popular channel, with viewers drawn from across the socio-economic range, to reach parents who might be having difficulties reading with their children because of their own literacy problems. Pack for reading with children could be ordered. This was a highly motivational literacy campaign, directing people off-screen to more specific learning while using the BBC’s mass audience channel.
The trouble with men was a season of radio and television programming stretching across a week on men’s health. It used a macho, ‘in yer face’ style to appeal to males between 16 and 24. Years. Helplines, e-mail counselling, and an accompanying booklet were made available.
The Learning Zone is the new educational service transmitted during night-time between 12.30 and 5.30 a.m. It aims to provide programmes intended for recording and use in colleges in colleges and schools. Short Cuts is a strand of programming for further education and training. Each short cut is built out of a specific curriculum need, and BBC archive materials are mined to put together short sequences for use by lecturers. (Quinn, J, 1998)

The United Kingdom has developed practical experience of successful campaigns involving broadcasters and local groups. This type of educational provision is now fairly well established in this country. A report on technologies to support adult learners reflects on some of the recent broadcast initiatives:

There is much to be gained from linking in networks of local centres to support individuals and learning in the home. The recent success of Computers Don’t Bite, linked in with the Adult Learner’s Week, involved public libraries, local centres, colleges and schools, attracted in 90 000 people for taster sessions in basic IT skills and is being repeated this year. The BBC’s Family Literacy campaign was also extremely successful, though the formula does not work uniformly as the numeracy initiative showed.(Arntsen, R, 1997)

Educational broadcasting in the United Kingdom aims to fit into existing initiatives and national educational plans. As such, a network of locally accessible learning centres is important to this approach. Motivation for such a network is given as follows in the same report:

The proposal for a network of locally accessible learning centres, …could provide a valuable network of referral points for those stimulated by educational programming, in the broadest sense. They could, for example, provide Internet access to someone who wanted visit a web site advertised at the end of a programme. At a more sophisticated level, they could provide direct local access to educational programming through the National Grid for Learning, backed up with discussion groups, Internet mediated distance learning or formal course provision. Broadcasts could, in partnership, provide a national profile for local centres, either directly within programmes, or through on-line referrals via broadcasters’ web sites.(Arntsen, R, 1997)

The following is a detailed description of a BBC broadcasting initiative Second Chance that aimed to encourage adults to go back to learning and training. The emphasis in this extract is on the marketing strategy but it serves to illustrate the nature of the campaign as well.

There were two marketing strategies, one targeted facilitators and the other the end user or adult learners. The marketing for facilitators included:

- a vast trawl to all persons involved in the training market: personalised letters were sent 10 months in advance to 25,000 contacts in Further Education colleges, Adult Education Institutes etc.; the list was tested and cleaned after first mailing, and involved list research and purchase;
- the dialogue was maintained with the second mailing: 45,000 copies of a large A3 poster were mailed, with a letter and an order form for a booklet;
- contact was developed: a booklet offering advice on different routes/options, containing all sorts of contact numbers;
- support by focussed press activity: Educational press launch was organised one month prior to transmission;
- specialist articles on Second Chance, written by in-house Education Officers and sent to the education/training press;
presentation/feedback process to develop involvement: a promotion event was organised 6 months in advance to inform key people in education and training;
- seminars on national scale: in 10 centres around UK seminars were held showing clips from the programmes, galvanising interest and involvement; one or two became even more involved and piloted material with learners, which was a good way to involve teachers, get quality feedback and also set up an effective marketing network.(Seatter, R., 1993)

One could say that the whole action was developed collaboratively, not imposed. Finally, a high level of awareness was created in the educational market by linking into the Adult Learners' Week, a national initiative already happening. Linking Second Chance and Adult Learners' Week was mutually beneficial for both organisations: BBC benefited from tapping into grass roots training networks, rather than imposing on them; while Adult Learners' Week gained media profile and kudos, as well as improved reach.

With regard to the user, the campaign was marked by the following features:

- high visibility: A3 poster, placed in colleges, libraries, public forums, with telephone numbers and booklet;
- immediate offer: booklet, promoted directly to end user as well;
- specific tabloid/magazine coverage: long-lead periodicals targeted and offered human interest stories and personality interviews for features;
- press launch: organised one month before transmission, including photo opportunities with celebrities;
- local grass roots access: a range of local community activities as a result of links with Adult Learner's Week, e.g. colleges/library exhibitions, open days, local ads;
- high visibility on air: on-air ads, in the form of short promotional clips;
- radio trail: trail made for local radio and sent round to stations;
- immediate action encouraged: helpline set up to instigate immediate action after series (it worked on a call-back system: callers left their request which was researched by team of experts, then the caller was given specific local advice).

As a result of the campaign to both groups there was a high awareness and a high commitment from both educational facilitators and end users. This was proven by the following facts:

- good take-up of booklet: 350,000 were sent out;
- very high take-up of helpline: 56,933 calls in 7 days - a record response;
- high press visibility: over 600 articles appeared;
- high viewing figures for programmes of this type: at the times shown, 31% had seen one or more programmes (based on research carried out with a panel of over 3,000 viewers);
- increased enrolments from colleges: although difficult to quantify, 83010 of colleges felt the initiative was worth repeating.(Seatter, R., 1993)

From this description is obvious that significant resource allocation was given to the marketing this campaign. The high costs were possible with financial support from two government departments.

WALES
Source of Information: E-mail correspondence and web sites
Technology: Digital platforms with analogue terrestrial television for the short-term
Target audience: Adults
Focus: Access to FET, HE and lifelong learning opportunities

S4C and BBC Wales have a:

new venture (which) is to use the digital networks - terrestrial and satellite - as well as the internet, to service the needs of Further and Higher education and lifelong learning. (e-mail recieved from Euryn Ogwen Williams. 29/4/1998)

This Digital College will

use any technology platform that is available at any time (particularly the web) and would want to use any technology development that converges those platforms. (e-mail recieved from Euryn Ogwen Williams. 29/4/1998)

It seeks to use television as the front-end of educational provision with broadcasters forming structures partnerships with education providers. The following extract from the Digital college web site offers general background information to the initiative:

‘What is it?
The Digital College is a joint venture which will combine the services and skills of educationalists, trainers, business and industry, BBC Wales and S4C to provide a first class life long learning service for viewers. Digital television will become a virtual "front door" to education.

How will it work?
Potential students watching digital broadcasts in their own homes through Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT), satellite or cable will be able to use their remote controls to access a range of innovative interactive skill-developing services. Eventually, services will include:

- TV programmes
- Key contacts with hyper links to service providers
- Advice and guidance
- Video tasters
- On-line and down-loadable skill packages
- On-line assessments
- Instant on-line booking, registration and transaction systems
- A range of access languages
- As the technology develops, colleges, community education centres, training agencies and schools will also be able to access and store Digital College materials for in-house use.

Who will benefit?
Anyone interested in learning new skills - vocational or non-vocational. Television is a powerful medium and can prove an effective access point. The Wales Digital College will also make full use of the Internet, phone and fax services, paper based materials, and of course face-to-face experiences in learning centres. The service will be particularly useful for job-seekers, those seeking new directions and challenges either early or late in life and those seeking open learning opportunities. Viewers with practical and physical learning difficulties could be among the first to benefit.

How will viewers know about back-up services?
The Digital College logo will appear in the corner of the screen when educational or training programmes are broadcast and whenever popular general programmes are discussing an issue which could lead a viewer towards a new skill or interest. As the technology develops hyper links may also be created between some commercial services and the Digital College so that a viewer booking a holiday in Spain, for instance, is instantly made aware of Spanish courses.

How will providers benefit?
Providers will have a live and effective interactive access medium for all their courses and study programmes. Potential students will be able to choose courses, discuss funding, arrange visits and book places without leaving their living rooms. Once hooked, providers will also be able to deliver parts of their courses and arrange back-up and reference materials on-line. Where student numbers tend to be low (e.g. in the case of some Welsh medium courses), providers in different areas could work together to provide effective interactive multi media experiences. In time, direct links could take students straight to provider Internet sites.

Some providers may wish to take advantage of opportunities to target new markets for their distance learning courses outside their normal catchment areas or to establish new joint study schemes with colleges in other parts of the country. On satellite, the Digital College could reach out all over Europe - and through a choice of languages.

How about Business and Industry?
Business and Industry will have a unique opportunity to plan for the future by educating the potential work-force as to career and job opportunities, skill requirements and access procedures and expectations.

Industries may wish to work closely with educational service and training providers to create and develop key Digital College materials. Digital interaction will allow potential employees to contact employers instantly with CVs and applications formatted to suit employers’ requirements. The Digital College will assist those in employment to update their skills on a regular basis. Potential suppliers to business and industry will also be educated as to future opportunities and requirements so that they too can plan their staff training. Business and Industry will want to be aware of the marketing opportunities afforded by this new technology - either by forming partnerships with educators or engaging in targeted sponsorship or advertising’.

The timeframes for these plans as well as the planning that still has to be done is explained in the following extract:

• The technology which will allow all this to happen is still developing - albeit at an amazing pace. It is likely that some services, hitherto undreamt of, will be possible in the not too distant future. Naturally, the Digital College isn’t going to happen overnight. The speed of take-up of the new technology is a key planning factor.

• The "reach" of the various delivery technologies - DTT, satellite and cable is another important factor in a country like Wales where many viewers reside in rural and mountainous areas. Creating the material and setting quality control procedures in place will naturally take time. All in all, it would seem realistic to allow a three to four year period for the establishment of a comprehensive service. By that time, Wales should have a "critical mass" of renewable material and the basis of a developed delivery machine. Material development will start straight away in key areas and technical and content pilots are already planned.

The college plans to work closely with the University for Industry (UFI) which will be providing complementary services. The following commonly asked questions regarding the digital college have also been answered on the web site:

What will be the characteristics of the "TV front door"?
Television programmes and interactive services available to people in their own homes which will nurture interest in education and training and will ensure that students can access information, advice and guidance services instantly and easily. Students will be able to register directly with providers, arrange interviews, pay fees and order materials and prospecti. During the early years, the numbers of viewers with digital decoders will be relatively low so other media will be used - including analogue TV and the Web.

To who is the Digital College accountable?
In its developmental stage, the broadcasters - S4C and BBC Wales. That situation is, however, about to change. In May 1999 an independent Trust will be established and the Assembly will be invited to nominate trustees. Providers in Wales have all been invited to join the Trust's Council. By September 1999, it is the members of that Council who will steer the development of the Digital College and the broadcasters will become service providers.

What about quality?
Projects will be established in key fields. Central to each project will be a provider partner or partnership which will be responsible for the educational content and the quality of that content.

What will the projects produce?
"Front door" materials - programmes and promotional material and information, advice and guidance tools. Sometimes, "first step" learning experiences will also be provided behind the programmes to give students confidence.

Will it be possible for students to access full open learning packages through TV?
Yes - and they'll be able to buy access codes electronically. Any formal qualifications will be offered by the existing provider network which will be responsible for content, assessment and accreditation. It is possible that providers may wish to give special consideration to transferable credit systems - especially in FE - but that is for the providers to decide.(http://www.digitalcollege.co.uk/gweinyddu/new/letter010499.htm)

Cooperative College Cooperative Training Programme
Source of information: Literature
Technology: Radio

‘Content: cooperative education: basic business calculations; society management; cooperative consumer shop management
Audience: cooperative society members; cooperative society employees; non members (currently 300 registered, students)
Distance education methods used: printed correspondence courses; postal tutorial and marking service; supporting radio programmes
Governance: the parastatal Cooperative College, which comes under the ministry of Cooperatives, manages the programme; it liaises with the Zambian Cooperative Federation and the regional unions over recognition
History and impact: the Zambian Cooperative College was established in 1980 and has run correspondence courses for employees and members since then. A significant number of employees throughout the country have now taken these courses. In the early to mid 1980s the College also ran mass member education programmes, including a series of mass radio learning group campaigns. This programme has now been taken over by the Zambian Cooperative Federation’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.19)

‘Content: agricultural practices: Land preparation; How to grow various crops;
Marketing of Produce; Livestock management; Loans
Audience: groups throughout the country of peasant farmers and emergent farmers
Distance education methods used: regular radio series in vernacular languages on topics selected by local subject committees of local extension workers, agricultural researchers, and farmers; supporting booklets in simple language also in vernacular languages; radio listening groups of c.15 members in local communities run by local communities run by local committees.
Governance: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries in collaboration with Zambian Broadcasting Services, working with local agricultural authorities
History and impact: Radio Farm Forums started in Zambia approximately 25 years ago. After an enthusiastic start, with UNESCO support, the programme appeared to be static in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It is now claimed that over 1 000 forums exist and operate regularly’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.19-20)

‘Content: literacy, health, agriculture, civics education, gender
Audience: radio listening group members made up of literacy class members, literacy instructors, community development staff at village level
Distance education methods used: radio series; printed booklets, brochures and newsletters in vernacular languages; radio listening groups managed and organised by local community development officers and committees
Governance: Ministry of Community Development and Social Services in collaboration with Zambia Broadcasting Services and local literacy committees
History and impact: Broadcasting for Literacy began in 1969, in English, extended in 1971 to cover the seven main vernacular languages. Each local literacy class is now supposed to organise a radio listening group. 'Mere are currently 1 219 such literacy classes’.(Dodds, T, 1996, p.20-21)