This chapter provides an overview of the international context of educational broadcasting. Around the world, educational broadcasting has undergone significant changes in the last few decades. These changes have been influenced by changes in educational and learning theory and technological developments. The chapter therefore opens with an overview of the historical development of educational broadcasting. This is a description of the general phases of development and does not describe any specific country in detail. Detailed descriptions of school services around the world have been compiled into a country-by-country report, which is attached as appendix two of this report. A discussion of the trends that emerged from these detailed descriptions has been included in this chapter. Following these trends, key lessons from international broadcasters are then articulated and explained. Finally, the chapter concludes with some examples of successful educational broadcasts around the world.

Educational broadcasting has had a dynamic history. Changes in conception have been due to developments in both educational thinking and the technological environment. Uwe Hasbrink postulates that three stages in the historical development of educational broadcasting are apparent: early optimism(This is based on an article by Uwe Hasebrink, Hans Bredow Institute for Institute for Radio and Television, Institute for Media Research at the University of Hamburg, titled: Development of educational television in Europe, http://www.edutv.org./reports4.html. Although the article focuses on educational television, similar observations can be made about educational radio); disillusionment; and renewed optimism. This crude distinction, with accompanying distinct time frames, is an over simplification of the historical development of educational broadcasting. Nevertheless the three stages serve to illustrate major shifts in thinking that have taken place over time.

Hasebrink characterizes the first phase of the development as a period of optimism, extending through the 1950’s and 1960’s. During this time, the ‘new technology’ of television was seen as perfectly suited to mass education. Educators and politicians saw television as the ideal means to democratize knowledge and education. Public broadcasts could reach the whole population and were thought to be able to facilitate learning, especially for less well educated people. The flow of information to the population was of uniform quality - everyone had equal access to the same content. It was thought that broadcasting was a way of keeping pace with rapid changes in knowledge and information requirements. Broadcasts were centrally controlled, and did not require regional or local mediation by teachers. Broadcasting was expected to reduce the ongoing need to train teachers, to keep up to date with new knowledge and information developments. As a result of this enthusiasm, educational programmes were broadcast in most European countries and in many countries that could support the technology around the world. This was a period of intentional education, where broadcasting programmes were characterized by the producer’s intention to teach and the viewers’ intention to learn. Early educational broadcasts were conceptualized according to pedagogical, and not broadcasting, criteria. Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) broadcasts introduced in developing countries, in the 1970’s, can also be situated within this period of early optimism and ‘overt’ education(A more detailed description of the developments within this phase, for Interactive Radio Instruction, in particular, follows the Hasebrink analysis). Some description of the developments in IRI methodology will follow this initial description of the three phases of educational broadcasting development.

The early optimism of this first phase was replaced by a period of disillusionment and scepticism, as educational broadcasting failed to have the impact initially expected. From the mid 1970’s to early 1990’s, comments like

television is for entertainment and fun and not for education and learning

were common. Broadcasting was recognized as being educationally restrictive, and was criticized for being inappropriate for education. The disadvantage of using a unidirectional technology that only allows for interaction in a very limited sense was recognized and emphasized(Radio broadcasts were termed interactive when they left a pause for a student response, allowing for a ‘conversation’ between radio teacher and students), while newer technologies like videocassette recorders and computers were thought to have greater educational usefulness. In addition to educational criticisms, public broadcasters realized that educational programmes were not popular and did not draw large audiences. With increased competition from other channels and programmes, educational programmes were given less attractive time slots or were discontinued.

Uwe Hasebrink characterizes the mid to late 1990’s as a third phase of new optimism for educational broadcasters. His argument is that a clearer understanding of what educational broadcasting can achieve and its strengths has emerged. Also, broadcasters are exploiting new technology environments, and this is changing their educational role. In order to overcome low audience appeal, producers now use popular programme formats and aim to appeal to general or broad audiences. Specific educational niche audiences are encouraged through a range of support strategies and mechanisms to make use of broadcasts as learning resources. In many technology-rich countries educational broadcasters have become educational resource providers, using a variety of technologies. This last phase of new opportunity and optimism will be examined in more detail after the analysis of trends in educational broadcasting, as it contains key lessons, pertaining to the conception of the SABC’s school-based service.

Although Hasebrink focused on the historical development of educational television, similar observations can be made about educational radio. The phases apply to developments in educational broadcasting and are not necessarily confined to television. It is however, worth investigating the historical development of Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) as a subset of the development of educational broadcasting in general. IRI has already been mentioned as characteristic of periods of early optimism, as it was designed for direct teaching using overtly pedagogical broadcasts. Its development does not reflect changes in educational radio as a whole, but nevertheless provides some important lessons about changing conceptions of this initial (and somewhat limited) use of broadcasts.

Learning Technologies for Basic Education project (Learntech) adopted the phrase ‘Interactive Radio Instruction’ to describe the methodology used in educational radio initiatives in a number of countries. The first IRI project was a Radio Mathematics program, introduced in Nicaragua in 1974. Since this early start, LearnTech has adapted its interpretation of the term ‘interactive’. Tracking the changing use of ‘interactive’ reveals a clear understanding of the philosophy underpinning IRI methodology as well as an indication of the historical development of IRI.

In the first LearnTech IRI, interactivity

was characterised as a ‘conversation’ between the radio teacher and the students. The radio teacher posed questions to which the students responded, in chorus, at a rapid pace.(Moulton, M. 1994)

This was thought to lend itself well to learning basic mathematics, on the basis that many questions in mathematics have only one correct answer, and frequent drill and practice were thought to be important to the learning process.

The ‘conversational style’ of IRI methodology, did not however, seem to lend itself well to teaching inquiry and problem solving. When initiating projects in subject areas other than mathematics, LearnTech extended its definition of interactivity, basing its new definition strongly on research being conducted on Computer Aided Instruction at the time.(The Nicaraguan Radio Mathematics project was initially conceived by professors at Stanford University who were researching computer-aided instruction. ibid. p14)

The new use of ‘interactive’ was based on an assumption that ‘recitation’ was the core characteristic of interactive instruction. Recitation is described, in a LearnTech publication, as:

A repeated chain of events in which
•    a teacher provides a structure, formulating the topic or issue;
•    the teacher solicits a response or asks a questions of students;
•    a student responds to the question; and
•    the teacher reacts to the students’ answer.(Moulton, M. 1994)

This understanding of interactive instruction clearly falls within a teacher-centred paradigm of education(The use of ‘interactive instruction’ rather than ‘interactive learning’, is another indication of a teacher centred notion), a conception confirmed by the following description of ‘a good teacher’, from the same LearnTech publication:

a good teacher will formulate questions according to a logic, sequence and style based on an understanding of the structure of the knowledge to be acquired. A good teacher will also anticipate students’ responses and the thinking behind those responses and move the dialogue forward in those terms towards the instructional goal.(Moulton, M. 1994)

With this conception of a good teacher’s role, LearnTech adopted recitation as the form of instruction used in most of its IRI broadcasts.

In instructional design terms, this meant that, while Radio Mathematics in Nicaragua, and Radio Language Arts in Kenya had relied primarily on an aural-oral (listening-speaking) method(For mathematics the aural-oral method involved extensive drill and practice of basic mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), while for the language programmes the drill and practice was of sounds, words phrases and sentences. ibid. p. 15), this was not the primary method used in subsequent LearnTech projects(Detailed descriptions of the LearnTech IRI projects in Papua New Guinea, Honduras, Bolivia, Nepal, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic and Guatemala have been included in appendix two of this report). For example, Radio Science in Papua New Guinea, adapted the conversational aural-oral method slightly by

developing a questioning technique that guided students in small increments through the problem solving process.(Moulton, M. 1994)

The Papua New Guinea project extended the role of the classroom teacher, aiming to provide opportunities for students to conduct hands-on science activities. Radio Health, in Bolivia, used stories, songs, games, and role-play, in addition to the aural-oral technique. The Costa Rican IRI project on environmental education did not follow the conversational format, aiming instead to

encourage active leaning by means of participation in real-life rather than classroom activities.(Moulton, M. 1994)

The IRI broadcasts, for training teachers in Nepal, did not use the conversational style at all, but consisted of short lectures followed by a few questions. The broadcasts supported print materials, which were an integral part of the teacher training programme(Moulton, M. 1994). Teacher education programs in Sri Lanka and Indonesia, extended the use of other technologies choosing to use audiocassettes, print, and contact sessions rather than the IRI broadcasts.

In summary, the IRI methodology adopted an overtly pedagogical approach characteristic of educational broadcasting phases of early optimism. It initially adopted a conversational style, or aural-oral methodology, between radio teacher and a chorus of students. Later, IRI broadcasts allowed for more varied responses, eliciting responses from individual students, a process mediated by the classroom teacher. The role of the classroom teacher was increased, and more emphasis placed on activities which took place after the broadcast and outside the classroom. Finally, additional support technologies like print and contact sessions were increasingly used, with audiocassettes eventually replacing the IRI broadcasts in some countries. This final tendency, towards the extensive use of support technologies, follows the trends identified in educational broadcasting as a whole.

The various phases of development in educational broadcasting are reflected in analysis of different school broadcasting services around the world. For example, many developing countries no longer offer such a service, not to have reached a period of new optimism. The developing countries, seem not to have reached the period of new optimism. Being unable to exploit the opportunities made possible by the new technology environment, many developing countries are disillusioned by, and sceptical of educational broadcasting, while some continue to provide ‘intentional education’ broadcasting projects, characteristic of periods of early optimism in developed countries.

Examination of international broadcasters and research conducted on European educational broadcasting(The European research refers to work conducted or compiled by the European Broadcasting Union, and the Internationales Zentralinstitut fur das Jugend-und Bildings-fernsehen which was not included in the descriptions of International broadcasters as it tended to identify European tends and did not focus on individual country’s schools’ services), reveals many trends. Common choices and tendencies exist with regard to the:

•    Content and format of broadcasts;
•    Various non-broadcast support strategies;
•    Use of broadcasting resources in schools;
•    Relationships established with the educational community; and
•    Evaluation and feedback strategies.

The trends in each of these areas are described and illustrated, with reference to more detailed international descriptions contained in appendix two.

Short programmes facilitate better integration into a lesson for school-based use, with fifteen minutes being a commonly used format. European educational broadcasts, for example, have

a tendency to short formats…(and) short sequences.(Meyer, M. 1992)

Programmes of similar length were also broadcast by Radio Belize, Ziz Radio in St Kitts Nevis, National Broadcasting Systems in St Vincent and the Grenadines, Radio Trinidad, and NHK (the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation). In line with this trend, TLC Elementary School, a one-hour programme broadcast by the Discovery Channel (United States of America), contains several short documentaries with a maximum length of fifteen minutes each.

Schools’ broadcasts commonly use general audience programming, which is re-packaged to fulfil an educational role. As examples of this, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation repeated selected evening programmes during school hours; while some ‘Cable in the Classroom’ networks reformat documentaries or programmes from their regular schedule into ‘teacher friendly’ modules. This trend does not, in itself, give any indication of what re-versioning is necessary. Careful consideration needs to be given to the conceptual and practical implications of this process. As a word of caution, Simon Fuller from Channel 4 (United Kingdom) noted that ‘home television styles do not always travel into a school context’(Letter received f rom Simon Fuller, May 1998).

Besides re-versioning, educational television units are also increasingly producing educational programmes in formats(Topic-related magazine programmes are an example of this kind of format) that have historically been related to broadcasting departments other than educational broadcasting. News, documentary and magazine programme formats that build on the strengths of television are increasingly favoured for schools broadcasts. Children’s news programmes are popular in some countries, as is clear from these two examples:

•    The ABC (Australian Broadcast Corporation) ran a Behind the News series;
•    Teleac/NOT (Dutch educational broadcaster) runs a Children’s News programme and has produced a series called News A Question of Choice about the news production process. It also runs a weekly school TV News programme, where a number of news items are examined in depth.

In Europe, formats used in journalistic television for example, documentaries or magazine shows are increasingly used for educational programming. In contrast, use of ‘classical’ or typical educational television formats (the school television series, the adult education course with ten or thirteen instalments) is declining in European educational broadcasting.

The changing format of IRI broadcasts has already been described in the historical overview, and will be revisited briefly now. IRI methodology has adopted a conversation technique between radio teacher and students. Radio projects in Bolivia, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua, where pauses were left during the broadcast, during which pupils could respond verbally to questions posed by the broadcast ‘teacher’, were typical of this broadcast format. The conversational style of IRI was slightly adapted to encourage individual student responses, and to guide listeners through problem solving techniques. This broadcasting format, although varying from project to project, remains limited its interactivity, as it is driven be a teacher-centred paradigm in which ‘recitation’ is the primary characteristic of ‘interactive instruction’.

Internationally, educational broadcasting services have tended to stop aiming to make direct curriculum interventions on specific topics. In the second broad phase in the development of educational television, educational weaknesses of broadcasting as a strategy for conducting intentional education were examined, and television was criticized for being

unidirectional and only allowing interactivity in a very restricted sense.(Meyer, M. 1992)

It was therefore realized that broadcasting was not appropriate for direct curriculum interventions that aim explicitly to teach a specific topic. This has changed the content selected for educational programmes:

More programmes might be produced on what people actually want to know, and fewer programmes on what people ought to know (in terms of educational standards) or on what people are required to learn (in terms of professional and vocational training requirements)…. There seems to be a trend also for school broadcasting departments to provide orientation, stimulation, sensitisation for things to learn and discover rather than structured courses aiming at measurable gains of knowledge.(Meyer, M. 1992)

IRI projects, by their nature, made direct curriculum interventions. Many projects are no longer operational; and of those that are, most now employ a variety of strategies, and do not rely solely on broadcasts.

Notwithstanding the above, the content of some broadcast programmes specifically targets educators. The use of broadcasts as part of a strategy for educator support has met with varying degrees of success. For example, some NHK programmes are designed for teachers and provide information on content and methods of school education. BBC Education (United Kingdom) has run a series for school-based in-service training for teachers called Teaching Today. Pitching programmes exclusively at teachers needs to be considered carefully, as this strategy has not always been successful. Channel 4 (United Kingdom) regards it’s programmes for teachers - rather than for teachers to use with pupils - as one of its most unsuccessful interventions.

International broadcasters have also realized the importance of providing non-broadcasting support to teachers and students. It is common practice for broadcasters to distribute broadcasting schedules which contain programme descriptions, the ages of the target audiences, links to the curriculum, and possible pre- and post- viewing activities.

The Canadian Open School Television’s support materials provide detailed information about its programmes. NHK’s school broadcast schedules include the school age group for which the programmes are intended. Most broadcasters distribute at least a basic programme schedule. The BBC Education schools service provides comprehensive supplementary printed support materials, descriptions of which have been included as appendix five of this report. In the USA, teachers can access programming schedules in a variety of ways:

The most common source of information is colleagues…Home viewing, television listings, and newspaper or magazine articles are other common sources. Guides developed specifically for teachers…are another important source of information…A small percentage of teachers are accessing online information sources.(Corporation of Public Broadcasting, Study of School Uses of Television and Video, 1996-1997 School Year - Summary Report, http://www.cpb.org/library/schooluses/sus6.html)

Broadcasters also use new technologies to complement broadcast services(A separate research project conducted by SAIDE for the SABC and Department of Education focuses on formulating an educational approach for the SABC in relation to the use of technologies other than radio and television. It includes more detailed descriptions of the uses of new technologies). For example, Teleac/NOT uses CD-ROM and the Internet for some of its non-broadcasting services. UR, the Swedish Educational Broadcasting Corporation, has launched its own department for the design and production of CD-ROM and computer support materials. Sweden introduced digital broadcasts in 1997. BBC Education produces software resources to support its broadcasts, and has started exploring the use of digital technology for its school service. Channel 4 produces software support materials for its schools’ service. In Wales, S4C has a new venture using digital networks and an Internet service. Across the ocean, the Discovery Channel has extensive CD-ROM resources and makes use of the Internet. In Canada, TV Ontario offers a range of technologies to support teachers and schools. The way TV Ontario describes itself - as a publicly funded educational network and not as an educational broadcaster - is a further reflection of this trend.

Educator support in the use of radio, television, and video in the classroom is also provided by many international broadcasters. Teacher training in the use of interactive radio in Bolivia was accredited and tied to teachers’ promotions and pay rises. ‘Technology utilization support for teachers’ was found to be a common service offered to USA schools by its public television stations. In the same country, the need for teacher training and technical assistance in classroom use of television and video is widely recognized, and the Discovery Channel has a list of ‘viewing guidelines’ for teachers. Many of the IRI projects in other countries, prioritized and increased teacher training in how to use radio programmes. As a further example, Botswana’s English Time project has been running workshops for teachers around the country.

It is also common for print support to be provided for specific series in the form of learner notes or worksheets and teacher’s wall charts or posters. The Commonwealth Caribbean countries supplemented broadcasts with notes, illustrations, and teachers’ guides. Barbados’ Rediffusion distributed student worksheets and posters. Guyana’s Schools Broadcast Division distributed teachers’ notes and broadcast schedules. The Jamaican Broadcasting Corporation supplemented broadcasts with teachers’ guides, workbooks, and charts. Ziz Radio in St Kitts Nevis, National Broadcasting Systems in St Vincent and the Grenadines, Radio Trinidad, the Academy of Educational Development in Kenya, Nicaraguan Radio Mathematics, BBC Education and Channel 4 also distribute or have distributed this kind of print support.

It is common for programmes to be used at times other than those scheduled by the broadcaster. In the USA, a recent study found schools recorded televised programmes(Corporation of Public Broadcasting), seldom using them with pupils when they were broadcast. Teleac/NOT broadcasts some programmes during the day for promotional purposes, but does most broadcasting at night. BBC Education’s primary school radio broadcasts are only transmitted at night. The Discovery Channel’s TLC Elementary is a weekly block broadcast of short documentaries, all of which focus on the same curriculum topic and can be used as stand-alone shows. TV Ontario also repeats many daytime broadcasts during evenings.

This flexibility of use is also linked to flexible copyright laws, and in many countries, copyright laws allow recordings to be made for educational purposes. Australia, the United Kingdom (on condition the educational establishments are licensed by the Educational Recording Agency) and the United States of America have copyright legislation that allows schools and educational institutions to record educational programmes.

Recording educational broadcast materials in several countries involves individual teachers, parents, local authorities, heads of departments, and school librarians, amongst other people. The formation of school video libraries and recordings by various members of the school community were referred to by Channel 4, Cable in the Classroom, BBC Education, and the Discovery Channel. In the United Kingdom, certain agencies (for example, libraries) are licensed to provide Channel 4 videocassettes at cost price. Similarly, Sweden has a network of municipal audio-visual media centres that make UR’s products available to schools and other educational organizations. UR’s programmes can be borrowed from public libraries.

Recording programmes is actively encouraged in the supporting materials distributed by broadcasters. For example, Canada’s Open School television and a Channel 4 brochure encourage recordings, the Discovery Online lists a number of ‘taping tips’ for teachers, and TV Ontario’s Galaxy Classrooms project requires that users have videocassette recorders.

Many broadcasters make video and audio cassettes of their broadcasts available to schools, as the following selected examples indicate:
•    ABC Enterprises sells recordings of its broadcasts;
•    Radio Trinidad ran a cassette copy service;
•    Czech Television makes videocassettes available to teachers;
•    BBC Education produces audiocassettes and video packs as resources for teachers; Channel 4 distributes video and audiocassettes; and
•    The Discovery Channel has an online school store that lists all its products available for purchase.

When programmes are used synchronously, common trends are:

•    Primary schools make most frequent use of these broadcasts because time-tabling is more flexible. In the United Kingdom, primary schools have adjusted their timetables to match the broadcast schedule. In contrast, Teleac/NOT reports that, all secondary schools record the programmes. This is similar to what occurs in the United Kingdom.
•    Broadcasters transmit programmes at the same time for many years so that schools adjust their timetables to match well-established broadcast schedules. Often, broadcasts occur at the same time each day. For example, Radio Assisted Community Basic Education broadcasts in the Dominican Republic was broadcast at four o’clock every afternoon. Similarly, Teleac/NOT broadcasts have been scheduled at the same time for many years.

Providing a schools-based broadcast service is not easy. Many international broadcasters have experienced problems and difficulties, and clear global trends emerge from international educational broadcasting. The most important trend is that school-based services have been stopped in many countries. Possible reasons include: logistical difficulties in using synchronous broadcasts; changes in technology and equipment; rapid dating of materials; and poor maintenance of equipment in schools. The ABC web site states that commitment to school-based broadcasting has diminished with the increased availability of computers and video recorders. Barbados’ Rediffusion initiative was stopped directly because of broken and old equipment in schools. The Jamaican Broadcasting Corporation stopped broadcasting to schools as the physical quality of tapes deteriorated with age. Ziz Radio in St Kitts Nevis was stopped due to problems with equipment, while the IRI initiative in Nepal was never a success, due to logistical problems in setting up the necessary infrastructure.

Schools broadcasts have also been affected by financial pressures on most educational broadcasting departments, which face strong competition from programmes with greater audience pull. According to Robert Winter:

Educational television in Europe has its back against the wall. Reduced funding, reduced time and only lip service from Commissioning Editors or Channel Controllers (sic). (Winter, R. Towards a European Educational TV Channel. Geneva: European Broadcasting Union.(http://www.edutv.org./reports2.html, accessed on 23/4/98).)

Winter also notes that:

The primary and secondary schools market is notoriously short of funding…The educational broadcasters have found that educational television, certainly to this age group (primary and secondary school learners)…is not suitable for cross border or international sales and therefore can derive little or no additional income.(Winter, R. Challenges for Public Service Broadcasters: New Technologies and Financial Deprivation - the Predicament of Education. Geneva: European Broadcasting Union. (http://www.edutv.org./reports3.html, accessed on 23/4/98).)

This trend to reduce funding, is characteristic of the second phase in educational broadcasting of disillusionment and scepticism, and seems to have affected all countries at some stage or another.

There are various types of relationships between broadcasters and educational authorities (frequently the Ministry of Education). In his discussion of European broadcasting in the late 1980s, Meyer identified five different types of relationship:

•    Type A: School broadcasts are produced by a non-broadcast institution that is attached or responsible to education. European examples listed are CNDP (France) and formerly ITE (Portugal).
•    Type B: The broadcasting organization is under governmental control. Use of airtime for educational broadcasting is a matter of agreement between the governmental bodies or ministries concerned. Examples include ERT (Greece), RAI (Italy), and IETV (Israel).
•    Type C: The division of labour model: School broadcasts are produced by the broadcasting organization. They are entirely or partially funded by the education authorities, or the latter subsidize or fund the production of supplementary material. Examples include ARD/HR (Germany), ORF (Austria), and SRG/DRS (Switzerland).
•    Type D: Cooperation is channelled through a joint committee or council. Usually representatives of the educational authority have an advisory function but no control, or their possibility to intervene is strictly defined. Examples include ARD/WDR (Germany), BBC and ITC (United Kingdom), NRK (Norway), SR/UR (Sweden), and YLE (Finland).
•    Type E: There is no ministry influence whatsoever, which does not rule out cooperation in connection with certain projects, or contacts with governmental institutions and publicly funded associations. Examples include ARD/BR (Germany), NOT (Netherlands), RTBF (Belgium), TVE (Spain), and formerly DR (Denmark).(Meyer, M. 1992, P.37)

Outside Europe, similar variations exist in relationships between broadcasters and educational authorities. What is clear is that most broadcasters have a relationship with educational authorities. As a few examples:

•    Nicaraguan Radio Mathematics was produced in cooperation with the Ministry of Education;
•    Sri Lanka Rapavahini television production is linked to the Ministries of Education and Media;
•    TV Ontario (Canada) works closely with the Ministry of Education and Training; and
•    The Botswana government has recently taken full responsibility for the English Time project.

The effectiveness of school broadcasts also depends on contact between the broadcaster and schools. Broadcasters have ongoing contact with schools to promote, research, or evaluate school use of programmes. This is sometimes done through appointed Education Officers, who go on regular school visits. BBC Education has ten Education Officers who are in regular contact with schools, teachers, and teacher training establishments. There are also six BBC representatives in England who visit and show new products at lunchtimes or after school. Channel 4, in the United Kingdom, has a national team of Education Officers who focus on professional development. In 1992, Meyer reported that:

Some 40 Education officers have been employed by ITV stations…in various capacities to liase with schools and adult community organizations. Much of their work is concerned with the programme support services and in encouraging the effective use of broadcasts, but they also play a part in assessing the effectiveness of programmes.(Meyer, M. 1992, P.44)

Different types of Advisory Boards for schools television exist in many countries. Referring to educational broadcasting units in Western Europe, Meyer writes that:

Quite often (the Advisory Board’s) roles and tasks, composition and functions are explicitly laid down in contracts or agreements. (Meyer, M. 1992, P.39)

He identifies three types of Advisory Boards:

Type A: Organizations directly under the control of the educational ministries or belonging to sate institutions are obviously not guided or supervised by advisory bodies; however, special ad hoc committees or subject related expert groups are occasionally installed. Examples include CNDP (France), ERT (Greece), IETV(Israel), RAI (Italy);

Type B: There are permanently working advisory boards or committees. These can be either

•    Advisory boards for the whole educational programme output;
•    Special subgroups of the advisory board that are concerned with school television or adult education programmes separately; or
•    Advisory committees or boards exclusively for the school television department or for some types of continuing education projects… ; and finally

Type C: There are groups of subject-related experts, sometimes inaugurated by an advisory body, usually formed by practising teachers and television editors, which in most cases work jointly in a team, at least in the planning stage.(Meyer, M. 1992, P.39-40)

From these descriptions, the importance of broadcasters communicating and interacting with the education community is clear. Processes are maintained through structured relationships with the educational authorities, regular contact with schools and established advisory boards.

Evaluation is an important part of any school service. Around the world many educational broadcasters draw on research to inform and to guide their services. The Corporation for Public Broadcasting and the Independent Television Commission conduct research into schools’ and educational broadcast services in the United States of America and United Kingdom respectively. On the European continent, Teleac/NOT has its own research department. The Internationales Zentralinstitut fur das Juegend-und Bildungs-fernsehen (IZI) in Germany and the EduTV Unit of the Educational Broadcasting Union conduct research on educational broadcasting. Again, various relationships between the broadcasters and research units are possible. Meyer identifies the following types:

Type A: The educational broadcasting organizations: Educational broadcasting is their only objective; they specialise in educational programme and media production, and have their own research departments. Examples include IETV (Israel), SR/UR (Sweden), NOT and TELEAC (Netherlands);

Type B: The research specialist colleague: the educational broadcasting department has one or more staff members who have been specialising in doing research work themselves or are experienced enough to be in charge of commissioning outside institutions to carry out research An example is YLE (Finland);

Type C: The audience research department connection: the broadcasting organization runs one or more broadcasting units as well as an audience research department…This type of research connection can be said to be predominant in Western European broadcasting stations…;

Type D: Outside research contacts: Broadcasting organizations have educational departments but no research units that are able to carry out ‘special research’; outside organizations are commissioned to do research in connection with educational broadcasting, if it exists at all. Examples include ARD affiliated stations (Germany);

Type E: Non-broadcasting institutions: A non-broadcasting organization is charged with the production of educational material, but not with its broadcast dissemination, there might be in-house research departments; and

Type F: Commercial interest organizations: Broadcasting organizations that have not (or not yet) any elaborate educational programme output but a definite interest in research, at least in audience research…(e.g. all commercial stations, especially the newly emerging ones).(Meyer, M. 1992, P.45-46)

Frequently informed by evaluation, several educational broadcasters, particularly in technology-rich countries, have transformed their role in the last few decades, taking themselves into a period of renewed optimism. This period sees broadcasters acting as producers of educational resources and exploiting new technology options. As an example of this, S4C in Wales has a:

new venture (which) is to use the digital networks - terrestrial and satellite - as well as the internet, to service the needs of Further and Higher education and lifelong learning.(E-mail received from Euryn Ogwen Williams. 29/4/98)

This Digital College will

use any technology platform that is available at any time (particularly the web) and would want to use any technology development that converges those platforms.(E-mail received from Euryn Ogwen Williams. 30/4/98)

One explanations for this new optimism, is that educational broadcasting

is nourished by currently tested and planned, interactive technologies which might enhance the restricted interactivity provided by classical television. (E-mail received from Euryn Ogwen Williams. 30/4/98)

The shift towards educational resource provision using a variety of available technologies is reflected in the shift in conception of the EBU’s Educational Television Unit described in this extract:

When the Unit was first formed it had just one principal objective; ‘To establish an Educational Television Unit to develop and promote the broadcasting and use of educational television programmes, both nationally and internationally.’ Since these first few days the word ‘broadcasting’ has rapidly become outmoded and should perhaps be replaced by ‘Diffusion’. It has become very apparent that education, and in particular Schools education, was being drawn very rapidly towards the Internet and Online Distance Learning or ‘Knowledge Resource Centres’ rather than traditional TV Broadcasting. The EBU’s Educational Unit now trades across all media and across all frontiers, setting up new co productions, arranging new distribution deals for existing programmes and archives, and developing new Online and CDROM hybrid content. This shift has come about so as to help the public service broadcasters to also become free of simple technology and to help them deliver content in the manner and style to which their users wish. (Winter, R. Towards a European Educational TV Channel.Geneva: European Broadcasting Union. (http://www.edutv.org/reports2.html, Accessed 4/23/98))

The typical European educational television channel has shifted from a single broadcasting channel to a digital bouquet of various technologies, which forms a ‘virtual channel’ or network of educational resources. Meyer devotes a section to ‘Broadcasters as producers of educational media’ that refers to videotapes, print, audio-visual materials (audiocassettes, 16mm film, slides, computer software and games), and multimedia production, further illustrating the shift to resource production using a variety of technologies(Meyer, M. 1992, P.50-52) . This trend started in the early 1990’s, and is now gaining momentum.

Specific international broadcasters provided other interesting information about the state of educational broadcasting. For example, broadcasting licence agreements specify how much airtime must be given specifically to educational programming and to schools services. Channel 4’s transmissions of 330 hours of schools programmes each year is a condition of its licence. Further, the provision of schools’ broadcasting services has been an important motivation for getting broadcasting equipment into schools. There have been a few initiatives to get equipment into schools in Sri Lanka, but broadcasting material is still not widely used. Cable in the Classroom aims to give each school in the United States of America a free cable connection.

Descriptions of school services offered by international broadcasters reveal common trends. In sum, both broadcast and non-broadcast services exist, as do equipment, mixed-media strategies, and evaluation. Many broadcasters assume that a service operates in technology-rich environments. The extensive and expensive infrastructure, hardware and support necessary for an effective school’s service has been largely assumed by the countries included in this description. Of course, international structures or strategies of implementation and sustainability cannot be unproblematically, or uncritically, transplanted into a South African context.

Recognizing this, it is nevertheless essential not to ignore the international trends. Having understood the historical development of educational broadcasting and identified current trends in educational broadcasting internationally, it is possible to signal the key lessons that must inform the South African conception of the public broadcasters school service.

Educational broadcasting does not draw large audiences when a specific niche is targeted. As a result, broadcasters no longer target niche audiences (like schools) with their broadcasts - they aim to appeal to as wide an audience as possible and, to interest viewers beyond the niche market. The niche markets benefit from incidental educational usefulness. Thus the following lessons emerge:

• Find ways of attracting larger audiences by:

•    Increasing promotional and marketing activities;
•    Searching for popular formats to attract mass audiences;
•    Making efforts to re-assess educational or information needs of audiences; and
•    Trying to gain hitherto unreached audience segments, which might imply lowering the educational impact or hiding the educational intention.(Manfred. M, (1997). Preface. In M. Meyer (Ed). 1997)

• Use the general audience appeal of programmes to market the services as popular or ‘for the people’. Educational broadcasters tend to consider general audience appeal as a positive reflection of open access and non-elitism. The new French channel, La Cinquieme, seems to have done this particularly well. It aims to make knowledge and culture accessible to all(Lecat D. 1992), not just to those in niche areas like schools or educational institutions.

Overtly pedagogical programmes are not popular. Consequently, educational broadcasts now use new formats like discovery, magazine and counselling programmes. The broadcasts are used to encourage audiences to ‘want to learn’, or to ‘follow-up on the support services offered’. The following are useful pointers:

• Focus on programmes that interest audiences. A recent conference on educational broadcasting focused on this concept(Conference held in April 1996, run by the Internationales Zentraleinstitut fur das Jugend-und Bildingsfernsehen (IZI) under the title ‘Educational Programmes on Television: What Do People Want - What Do They Get?’). The central question posed at the conference was

not what people learn from educational television, or if they learn anything at all, but whether they find a programme interesting and appealing enough to stay with. It would not really matter whether there was any pedagogical intention as long as it was attractive in itself….It was made clear to us (the conference organisers) that any attempt to patronise the audience, to make them feel that any kind of learning is expected of them, would cause rejection and ‘zapping’ to another channel.(Meyer, M. 1992)

• Avoid using the term ‘learning’ and making the educational intention overt. International broadcasters avoid using the term learning and prefer to use discovery. The Discovery Channel is often sited as the true success story of educational broadcasting in the late 1980s. The Learning Channel is Discovery’s sister channel in Europe. Joyce Taylor describes the two channels’ programmes as follows:

The programmes we transmit are not didactic, in the sense that they are not intended primarily to educate, but they can be and are being used as an educational tool(Taylor, J. Success in cable networks: The Discovery Channel, in M Mayer.(Ed.).op cit. p.55).

The Learning Channel is using the term TLC where ever possible,

because we found that the word ‘learning’ keeps viewers away and does not reflect adequately the channel’s focus.(Taylor, J. Success in cable networks: The Discovery Channel, in M Mayer.(Ed.).op cit. p.55)

The French counterpart to The Discovery Channel is Découverte, which is part of the logo of La cinquème. Other countries also chose titles for their programmes that refer to discovery rather than learning(A ZDF (German) series, Spinx - the secrets of history, and The Research Adventure, SDR’s The Science Adventure and Bavarian Broadcasting Company’s Scientific Mysteries of the Universe are given as examples). Meyer explains that:

These titles are not chosen haphazardly, those who choose them know why. We are moving in a semantic field that has nothing to do with a curriculum for formal or non-formal education: adventures, discoveries, mysteries, interesting and sensational subjects from the worlds of history and science. It is a way back to the origins of journalism. There are experiences offered and accepted which tend to touch on the affective domain. Programmes of that kind are accepted not because they are ‘instructional’, but because they are interesting, they arouse curiosity, they ‘turn you on’, to adopt a word from the jargon of young people…The viewers apparently react positively to your wanting to arouse their interest. They want to be taken along on a journey to the unknown, the undiscovered. They seek experiences, educational experiences if you like….Here it is no longer a matter of instructional material, of systematic knowledge, of a coherent and sound explanation of the world. Nor is it a matter of coping with one’s daily stint of learning, of acquiring knowledge that can be examined.(Meyer, M. 1992, pp.10-11)

Exploit new formats that interest viewers.
Choosing titles that refer to discovery rather than learning, as reflective of the trends in choice of programme format, as it is of aiming to attract audiences. This can be a very positive shift for a school service as it encourages programmes that make for interesting and good television. In recent research conducted in the United Kingdom(Kelley, P. 1998), teachers were asked what roles they considered to be most appropriate for televisio.

Those with 4-7 year olds pupils emphasise(d) above all:

•    presenting different cultures/religions (91%)
•    natural history / natural world / distant places (89%)
•    widening general knowledge (94%)

Teachers of 7-11 year olds (were) even more emphatic about the first two elements (93%/99%) and only slightly less about the third (87%)…At secondary level these three elements are also of paramount importance (86%/84%/86% respectively) but two other elements also catch the eye:

•    presenting different social issues/ problems (89% and 91% for 14-17 year olds)
•    ‘current affairs’ (86% and 90% for teachers of 14-17 year olds).(Kelley, P. 1998)

Thus teachers (at least in the United Kingdom) seem to welcome the shift to new formats, which has the effect of drawing bigger audiences.

Move away from overtly pedagogical programming to allow for more active learning and learner centred approaches. Germany’s ZDF has conducted research into the educational effectiveness of overtly pedagogical programming and the low audience ratings of educational programmes. The research findings have

contributed towards getting away from certain editorial truisms which say that one has to enlighten the viewer as fast as possible and condescendingly instruct him (sic) on what one already knows oneself. Instead, a different attitude also became possible: no longer regard the viewer as the recipient of certain lessons, but go on a journey of discovery with him (sic) almost as an equal partner.(Homering, W. (1992). Riddles of the world. In M. Meyer. (Ed.). 1992)

A third key area is the way in which niche markets are catered for. Niche markets (like schools) are targeted through the added-value non-broadcasting support services and repeat transmissions. They are not explicitly targeted in the main broadcasts.

• Aim for broadcasts that have general audience appeal and offer support services for schools to use them. Non-broadcast support is offered to schools to use the broadcast materials educationally, in most, if not all, school services.(See Appendix Two: Descriptions of School Services of International broadcasters)

• Use broadcasts as a means of gaining interest for people to choose to buy or use follow up support. This is done a lot in the United Kingdom and Netherlands, where support services and resources are offered as a follow-up to broadcasts. The sales of resources, or the response to services, is used as one of the means of gauging the success of the programme.

• Reversion general audience programming for the niche market and transmit this in non-peak hours. Assignment Discovery is a two-hourly block of programming for schools in the United States of America. It is re-versioned material from The Discovery Channel. In the United Kingdom, The Learning Zone is transmitted on BBC2 from 2.30 to 5.30 a.m. One of its success stories, is a series called Short Cuts:

Each Short Cut is built up around a particular curriculum need…- the BBC’s rich archive of materials is then, quite crudely mined, to put together short sequences for use by lecturers.(Quinn, J. Getting closer to audiences: the BBC experience, in M.Meyer (Ed.). op cit. p.18)

Very few broadcasts are used synchronously in schools. Where there is synchronous use, it is in primary school series that have regular time slots. It is generally assumed that if schools have televisions they also have videocassette recorders. The educational benefits of using videocassettes are actively encouraged in the support materials and research findings of many international broadcasters.

A research report for the school year 1996/97 in the United States of America states that 98% of teachers have television and video access in their schools, while 98% reported having used television and video in their classes with in the last five years,. Crucially though,

most schools view television programming on videotape. Few schools view programs in real time.(Corporation of Public Broadcasting ‘Study of School Uses of Television and Video, 1996-1997 School Year - Summary Report’, http://www.cpb.org/library/schoolusestudy/index.html)

It is also interesting to note this report states that:

the typical school in 1997 has 14 VCR’s for teachers to use.

A recent United Kingdom research report (Kelley, P. 1998)also comments on the move away from synchronous use of television in schools:

Originally, schools television was transmitted for live reception by schools. the impact of the video recorder has, over the years, meant that teachers now rarely use ‘live’ broadcasts in class. This, in turn, has led to the increasing use of night-time broadcasts of block (sic) of programmes, and to the sale of videocassettes, both by broadcasters and by publishers.(Kelley, P. 1998, p.5)

A report on ITC research done in 1990, 1993 and 1996, noted a slight increase in the primary school use of television or video. In 1990, 71% of all primary school teachers surveyed reported using television or video once or twice a week or more. The figure rose slightly in 1993 to 74% and to 77% in 1996. However,

the reverse was true for secondary schools, with the figure falling from 44% in 1990, to 27% in 1993 and to 23% in 1996. (Kelley, P. 1998, p.11)

Within the trend of declining use, there was an even steeper decline in synchronous use of television.

In 1990 16% of all teachers viewed programmes live with their classes, by 1996 this had fallen to 5%. Even among primary teachers, only 11% were viewing live by 1996.(Kelley, P. 1998, p.11)

The following observations emerge from this:

Exploit the educational benefits of asynchronous use. Very few schools are likely to have a television without a videocassette recorder. This allows for recording of educational programmes during and outside of school hours.
Encourage recording of broadcasts and offer a video and audiocassette service to schools, or other niche markets.

The role of the educational directorate of international broadcasters has shifted from educational broadcasting production to offering, conceptualizing and coordinating coherent non-broadcasting support for the use of broadcasting and other educational resources. In some technology-rich countries, educational directorates of broadcasters now offer a range of educational resources using a variety of technologies. Thus the following lessons emerge for South African broadcasting:

Offer non-broadcast support to schools, using technologies suitable to the South African school environment. The point of offering non-broadcast support to niche markets has already been stressed. The choice of technologies (like print, video and audiocassettes, telephones, and possibly information technologies) needs to be determined by the technological infrastructure at schools. While technology-rich countries have moved to become providers of educational resources for new technologies, this may not be appropriate in the South African school context.
Offer broadcast time to educational organizations and institutions, with options for varying degrees of support for these initiatives. The concept of an Open Television service has been interpreted in a number of ways by various international broadcasters. Some educational broadcasters see Open Television as appealing to all members of the population, and not being elitist by only targeting those in structured educational programmes (including schooling). La Cinquieme is an example of this interpretation. Others see Open Television as allowing access to the airways, and offering support, to any individual, organization, or institution wanting to use educational television. As part of TLZ, the BBC has an Open Access Unit that allows non-profit organisations involved in communicating specialist information and education and training material to use the broadcaster.(King, J. 1997, The Learning Zone and its users. In M.Meyer (Ed.))

When the educational department of the Danish broadcaster (DR) was re-launched, for a trial period of four years, it was with this conception of Open Television:

The principle of TV Open is that the department makes itself available and helps to acquire, produce and broadcast television programmes on DR’s television channel.(Argot, M. 1997,. Restarting educational broadcasting in Denmark to meet the challenges of the new technological environment. In M. Meyer (Ed). 1997)

It has a minor budget of its own for purchasing and developing educational programmes, but this is not intended to be the norm. TV Open offers broadcasting time to interested parties. It contributes to the development and acquisition of programmes, while the development of ideas, financing and production is assigned to other organizations and education providers. It can play a consultative role in production, if this is requested. It is a television channel, which offers open access to any institution, association, or organization wanting to distribute information to the entire Danish population. It also offers open access to any ordinary person who has produced a small video dealing with a topic in which they are interested or expressing their opinions or feelings. The only conditions placed on the two latter areas are no advertising is allowed, and nothing can be said or shown that contravenes DR’s rules on proper broadcasting or the Danish penal code(Argot, M. 1997,. Restarting educational broadcasting in Denmark to meet the challenges of the new technological environment. In M. Meyer (Ed). 1997). When it started, the output was two hours a week. The current output is twenty hours per week, including ten hours of repeats. The programmes are broadcast in marginal parts of the programming schedule.(Argot, M. 1997,. Restarting educational broadcasting in Denmark to meet the challenges of the new technological environment. In M. Meyer (Ed). 1997)

The opportunities resulting from the above lessons are a positive indication that South African educational broadcasting can move into period of renewed optimism by adopting support strategies appropriate to its local context. B way of concluding this section, we will describe in more detail some examples of successful international educational broadcasts. Most examples have been taken from conference papers in which broadcasters cited a few examples of broadcasts that they considered to have been a success. To give some context to each initiative, a description of recent developments in educational broadcasting in the country have been included.

Germany’s ZDF has moved away from programmes which had ‘didactically edited analyses and processes’ as a result of the low audiences these programmes attracted. It decided to produce programmes with the following features:

•    transmission times that are easy to remember and remain unchanged;
•    the best transmission time available; and
•    clear content that is easy to grasp and suitable for gaining viewers interest in definite areas of life.(Homering, W. 1992, p.40)

Historical subjects, natural history, the history of art and culture, myths and legends, and threats to the beauties of earth’s nature were some areas identified. The transmission time was fixed on Sundays from 7.30 p.m. to 8.15 p.m. ZDF staff do not describe these programmes as educational programmes, but rather as programmes that:

Offer the public subjects which are worth watching and thinking about - what the viewers make of them is left open.(Homering, W. 1992, pp.40-41)

The following development emerging in the documentary area since the end of the 1980s were identified:

•    Educational programmes were ineffective and had small audiences due to their rigid, often academic conception. As a result, documentaries were revised to appeal, not only to a chiefly specialized audience, but also to viewers whose interest could potentially be aroused.
•    ZDF research findings have

contributed towards getting away from certain editorial truisms which say that one has to enlighten the viewer as fast as possible and condescendingly instruct him on what one already knows oneself. Instead, a different attitude also became possible: no longer regard the viewer as the recipient of certain lessons, but go on a journey of discovery with him almost as an equal partner (sic).(Homering, W. 1992, pp.40-41)

•    Another important current has been the rising demand and noticeable increase in competence in counselling broadcasts.
•    The department focuses on what is popular, and less on serving a limited specialised audience that already has some knowledge of the subject.
•    Creatively crossing the borders between individual subjects areas has led to an increase in new themes, narrative styles and presentation forms.

Three successful series are mentioned:

•    Sphinx - the secrets of history;
•    Terra X - venturing into the unknown, and
•    ZDF’s Knoff-hoff show (science subjects and oddities from natural science presented in popular way);

Bavarian television’s Die Sprechstunde (Consultation Hour), a health magazine programme, is also described as successful.

Examples of successful educational broadcasts in the United Kingdom include:

•    A small dance was a one part educational drama, by Thames TV, that told of a teenage girl who fell pregnant and abandoned her baby. It was broadcast on prime time in 1992, and was accompanied by supporting publications and a telephone helpline.
•    The last cigarette, also by Thames TV was a 90 minute light entertainment special, shown on National No-Smoking Day and repeated later in the year. Immediate response to a telephone helpline to the repeat broadcast came in the form of 60 000 attempted calls. In addition, 25 000 information packs were distributed on request.
•    Play it safe, a BBC Education series of a documentary followed by eight programmes of ten minutes each, on child accident prevention, was very popular. It was supported by a range of backup material and linked to a national campaign. The series created substantial demand for support material and more detailed information.(Meyer, M. 1998)
•    Read and Write Together was a week of programming broadcast in February 1995. Three 60-second shorts, screened on BBC1, were scattered through the schedule at peak viewing time. The aim was to use the popular channel, with viewers drawn from across the socio-economic range, to reach parents who might be having difficulties reading with their children because of their own literacy problems. Pack for reading with children could be ordered. This was a highly motivational literacy campaign, directing people off-screen to more specific learning while using the BBC’s mass audience channel
•    The trouble with men was a season of radio and television programming stretching across a week on men’s health. It used a macho, ‘in yer face’ style to appeal to males between 16 and 24. Years. Helplines, e-mail counselling, and an accompanying booklet were made available.
•    The Learning Zone is the new educational service transmitted during night-time between 12.30 and 5.30 a.m. It aims to provide programmes intended for recording and use in colleges in colleges and schools. Short Cuts is a strand of programming for further education and training. Each short cut is built out of a specific curriculum need, and BBC archive materials are mined to put together short sequences for use by lecturers. (Quinn, J. Getting closer to audiences: the BBC experience, in M.Meyer (Ed.). op cit. p.13-27)

La Cinquieme was established in December 1994 as the channel of learning and knowledge. It aims to be a popular channel ‘for the people’, and to make knowledge and culture accessible to all. It desires above all to give everyone an appetite for and enjoyment of learning. The guiding principle of Encrans du saviour (knowledge on screen) is to combine enjoyment with the provision of knowledge. It deals with traditional branches of knowledge like mathematics, history, geography, literature, philosophy, economics, and science. It also deals with preventative health care, the environment, the fight against social exclusion, and knowledge of education and civic institutions. The following successes are evident:
•    Documentaries and magazine programmes have drawn a loyal and approving audience;
•    La Cinquieme has a 26 minute a week slot for short films by young directors;
•    Affaires publiques (of public concern) is a programme devoted to instruction in civics, which has been welcomed as part of the Encrans du saviour slot; and
•    Documentary programmes dealing with travel and adventure are also mentioned as meeting growing success.(Lecat D. 1992)

YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation, mainly produces instructive education programmes. The programmes aim to get audiences to enrol in educational courses or to use follow up materials. The acceptance of language tuition is very great in Finland.

Kaputska is a Russian language television series of eight programmes wof twenty minutes each, which aims to:

Break down prejudices, to motivate the public and to enhance the negative image of everything that has anything to do with Russia and Russian. Our message is: Russian is modern, Russian is pop, Russian is sexy(Roman, S, 1997)

A back-up course package is sold for learning Russian, which comprises an audio cassette, a disc with several games, a CD-ROM with an animated adventure game, and two books.

CONCLUSION

Chapter two has provided an overview of the international context of educational broadcasting. Around the world, educational broadcasting has undergone significant changes in the last few decades. These changes have been influenced by changes in educational and learning theory and technological developments. The chapter opened with an overview of the historical development of educational broadcasting focusing on both television and radio. A discussion of trends emerging from international broadcasting was included. Key lessons from international broadcasters were then articulated and explained, with a view to re-conceptualizing the South African school-service. Finally, the chapter concluded with some examples of successful educational broadcasts. As part of the research conducted for this report, descriptions of the school services of international broadcasters have been compiled and appear in appendix two of this report.