CHAPTER THREE
Current South African Educational Broadcasting Initiatives

INTRODUCTION

Various South African educational broadcasting initiatives have been undertaken in the last decade. Many of these have been evaluated by South African – and, in some instances, international – evaluators. There is thus a small, but developing, collection of educational broadcasting literature in South Africa, which has greatly assisted us in our task of briefly describing current South African broadcasting initiatives. The value of examining these reports is that they provide important information about strengths and weaknesses of educational broadcasting in South Africa. We therefore provide a brief description of educational broadcasting productions undertaken by the SABC, as well as by private and non-governmental organizations. These initiatives provide important lessons that can inform planning of the SABC’s school broadcasting service. In this way the SABC will be able to build on the successes – and avoid mistakes – of various players in the emerging educational broadcasting industry in South Africa.

SABC EDUCATIONAL RADIO INITIATIVES  (For a more detailed report on this see appendix seven: A Situational Analysis on the use of Educational Radio)

SABC radio has historically been linked to apartheid educational policies, and this has lead to deep resistance among African language radio stations to the inclusion of formal educational programming in their line-up. High levels of centralization, lack of autonomy, and the low status accorded to black personnel compounded this frustration. In response to this, African language radio stations produced their own informal educational programmes. These historical trends continue to influence the types of educational radio broadcasting available, and impact on station managers’ perceptions of the Learn ‘n Live partnership between the Department of Education and SABC.

Educational radio programmes are broadcast on ten radio stations in different languages:

The Learn ‘n Live partnership between the SABC and National Department of Education is perceived by some station managers to provide opportunities and a new era of educational programming. There is, however, concern about the danger that the partnership might be prescriptive. Station managers raise the following issues in their discussion of the partnership:

•    Each station has made available an average of 241 minutes per week, which constitutes a substantial amount of airtime.
•    Some accommodation has been made between stations’ need for flexibility in their scheduling and requirements for educational programming in schedules.
•    Concern exists about listeners’ reactions (perceived to be negative) to educational programming. Some managers are aware that declining audience figures may be related to the quality of the programming, rather than the fact that it is educational.
•    Concerns with building audiences appear to be in conflict with the notion of broadcasting to niche audiences, which is often characteristic of educational broadcasting.
•    Promotional strategies have focused on general audiences, and at present, stations are unable to invest the resources necessary to take specific educational programmes to niche audiences.
•    There is concern about limited format options for SABC educational programmes that will make for good radio. Talk shows and recorded interviews are the most commonly used formats but alternatives are needed.
•    Script development processes remain largely centralized in Johannesburg, although scripts are adapted somewhat in regional stations. As an approach, this does not make for innovative and exciting programming.
•    There is lack of clarity about where responsibility for quality control in educational programming resides.

SABC Education Radio has begun developing a substantial body of educational programmes on its ten African language stations, but concern exists about audience pull and educational effectiveness of these programmes. While some niche programming is broadcast (for example, early childhood development and teacher support programmes), only one category of programmes - ECD programming - is broadcast directly to formal educational sites.

At present, educational programming is conceptualized by station managers as ‘informal programming’, a conceptualization with which most are comfortable because it downplays educational effectiveness in favour of ‘edutainment’. Radio stations are cautious about a school broadcasting service, listing the following reasons:

•    The possibility of losing listeners;
•    Availability of radios in schools;
•    Possible conflicts with existing language policy; and
•    Possibility of the partnership translating into prescriptive infringements on station autonomy.

SABC educational radio programmes can be divided into eight different categories, but only six have relevance to processes of learning and teaching in schools. These are:

• Early childhood development. These programmes target children in reception year.

• Curriculum support. These programmes cover a range of different topics in the eight learning areas, namely:
  •    Science and technology;
  •    Human and social science;
  •    Art and culture;
  •    Life orientation;
  •    Literacy and language;
  •    Economics and management sciences;
  •    Natural sciences; and
  •    Communication.(The curriculum support programmes which have been developed in 1998 are listed in appendix five)

• Youth and vocational guidance. These programmes cover topics such as study method; time management, and career guidance.

• Educator development. These programmes target school managers and teachers and cover topics such as professional development, parental involvement in school governance, and whole school development.

• Science and technology. These programmes target adult listeners, but, in the hands of a skilful teacher, might have some relevance to higher primary and secondary schools.

• Culture of learning and teaching. These programmes target general audiences, but are relevant to what happens inside schools and can stimulate discussion about important issues.

Based on information provided by SABC Radio(SABC. (1998). Educational Radio Broadcasting Schedule. Johannesburg: SABC.), the following can said about the current services:

• Ten radio stations participate in the service, namely Ikwekwezi FM, Lesedi FM, Ligwalagwala FM, Motsweding FM, Munghana Lonene FM, Phalaphala FM, Radio Sonder Grense, Thobela FM, Ukhozi FM, and Umhlobo Wenene FM.

• Educational programmes are generally broadcast from Monday to Friday.

• An additional educational schedule slot exists on most radio stations’ Saturday or Sunday schedules.

• Educational programmes are integrated into general programme schedules, and are thus accessible to people who listen to the station regularly.

• Most of the programmes broadcast by a single station are allocated roughly equal amounts of airtime on different schedules, although some variability exists between stations. For example, Umhlobo Wenene FM devotes half an hour to educator development programmes (Thursdays from 21h30 to 22h00) while Thobela FM broadcasts educator development programmes for 55 minutes (Saturdays from 07h05 to 08h00).

• Stations devote an average of 230 minutes per week to educational programmes that could be used in schools, although some variability exists between different stations:

• ECD and curriculum support programmes (ranging between ten and fifteen minutes respectively) are broadcast on consecutive days. Potential exists for building a dedicated audience following, although no information was available on how to achieve this.

• ECD programming is scheduled in the morning, and works on the principle that programmes will be synchronously used by caregivers within the childcare centre.

• Curriculum support programmes are broadcast in the afternoon, based on the assumption that target audiences will use them after school hours. Radio Sonder Grense broadcasts curriculum support material in the evenings between 20h15 and 20h30.

In 1998, SABC Education Radio commissioned a range of evaluations of its educational radio broadcasting. The overall trends revealed that there was room for improvement in early childhood development (ECD) and educator development programmes.

Early Childhood Development Programmes
The evaluation of early childhood development programmes recommended that:
•    Programmes be organized around themes similar to those used in childcare centres, which would facilitate programme integration into the activities of the centres;
•    Content selected should ensure that both rural and urban listeners would find something relevant in each programme;
•    Sound identification activities should be integrated into programme content, or entire programmes be devoted to these activities on a regular basis; and
•    More sound special effects should be used in story-telling programmes(Barker, K et al, 1998).

A popular children’s radio programme, Eyentsatshana, broadcast on Umhlobo Wenene FM on Saturday mornings, was not listed in the SABC Educational Radio line-up. According to evaluation reports though, it has a strong following among parents, ECD practitioners and children. The presenter (Mrs Vusa or Mama ka MaAsi) visits a pre-school or ECD centre; and the institution itself prepares a programme for broadcast, usually by singing songs, reciting rhymes, and telling stories. A possible reason for the programme’s success is that its material is relevant and familiar to listeners. For example:

Several of the ECD practitioners discuss the previous Saturday’s programme with their students every Monday morning and find that they are usually able to recall various aspects of each programme.(Barker, K et al, 1998, p.19).

Eyentsatshana is an important example from which other ECD programmes can learn and innovate. Clearly, the presenter and content of the programme attract listeners to tune in on a Saturday morning and/or use the programme in their work.

The importance of programme briefs in ECD programming was highlighted in the CASE evaluation report. CASE argues that:

In developing briefs, intended outcomes of the programmes should be specific and focused rather than broad and generic. It may be useful to specify intended outcomes in various domains such as social, cognitive and affective outcomes. Effectiveness is much easier to assess against clearly specified criteria.(Barker, K et al, 1998, p.26).

Educator Development Programmes
Evaluation reports on educator development programmes suggested that teachers should help to select the topics included in programmes(Hope Madikane-Otto & Associates. 1998. Research Report on Educator Programmes for Radio. Johannesburg: Hope Madikane-Otto & Associates). This would ensure that topics are appropriate to the needs and interests of the target audience. Other suggestions were:
•    The presentation of the discussion should be more challenging and controversial;
•    The presenters should talk to teachers, and have an understanding of important issues;
•    The programmes should profile more schools to show success stories and difficulties experienced; and
•    The programmes should profile ‘best practice’ in teaching and learning processes.(Hope Madikane-Otto & Associates. 1998)

Educational television programmes are broadcast on Channels one, two, and three. Channel one broadcasts a mixture of programmes for general public consumption, as well as schools-related programming and programmes for young children. Channel two currently broadcasts programmes for early childhood development, farmers, and parents. Channel three broadcasts the Learning Channel for an hour and a half per day. In these programmes, teachers teach specific parts of the secondary school curriculum, and tackle problems which students may encounter with subjects such as Mathematics, English, or Biology.

Available television programme listings were analysed in terms of the following categories:

•    Syllabus-related programmes;
•    Life-skills programmes; and
•    Programmes for teacher development.

Each category was examined to see how many series were available within each subject area, the level of programmes and their target audiences, the length of programmes, languages catered for, copyright, and potential use of programmes within a school context. The tables constructed as a basis for analysis are contained in appendix one. The analysis provided in this section includes programmes developed before the launch of Learn ’n Live(All of the findings in this section have been made on the basis of programme lists only, and the comments made should not be construed as providing any indication of the quality of the programming under discussion. Suggestions for potential use are made purely on the basis of content descriptions given. Programmes would need to be carefully evaluated by practitioners before any further guidelines for use could be developed.), as well as programmes developed within the goals of Learn ’n Live. Over 150 educational television programme series are available, with almost two thirds being closely related to the existing school syllabus.

Syllabus-Related Programmes (93 Series)
These are programmes that can be directly related to a school curriculum or study programme, either at primary or secondary school levels. Most were produced before the establishment of Learn ’n Live and thus older programmes were produced in terms of the old syllabus. Most cover topics within the syllabus at a particular level (for example, grades ten, eleven, or twelve), and may be useful for introducing specific parts of the syllabus to students for the first time or for revision purposes. They cover subjects such as accountancy, Afrikaans language and literature (for first- and second-language speakers), biology, business economics, English language and literature (for first- and second-language speakers), geography, history, home economics, industrial arts, mathematics, Northern Sotho, science, study methods, and Zulu.

Programmes produced since the introduction of Learn ’n Live take their lead from the new approaches of Curriculum 2005, tending to be more interdisciplinary and emphasizing active learning. They cover fields such as natural sciences, language and social studies, arts and culture, religion, career guidance, human and social sciences, technology, language, literacy and communication, vocational orientation, and economic and management sciences. From the information provided, it would seem that many of these series focus on the application of theory to practice and assist students in examining what they are learning from a range of perspectives.

Life-Skills Programmes (49 Series)
All of these programmes explore issues that adolescents and young adults will encounter in the course of their lives. Many have the goal of enabling students to learn from the experiences of others and to learn skills that are not generally taught in the context of the formal classroom. The programmes cover a wide range of themes, the largest grouping of which is concerned with health. Some 21 out of the 49 series deal with different aspects of health, with topics ranging from AIDS, primary health care, basic hygiene, nutrition and diet, to sexuality, drug and alcohol dependency, infectious diseases, and abusive adults. Other themes include parenting issues, emotional and other issues which concern teenagers and young adults, democracy and human rights, language, literacy and communication, arts and culture, pet care, and vocational and life orientation. Formats seem to vary from situational comedies and drama to talk shows, animation, and documentary.

Again, some of the series were produced before the establishment of Learn ’n Live, but most seem to have been produced after February 1997. The newer programmes seem to reflect an integrated and applied approach to learning. In one series, this was taken to the extent of training students and giving them cameras with which to record aspects of their daily lives. The life-skills programmes have been separately listed in appendix one for the purpose of this study, and have potential for use in structured learning, both in schools and externally.

Educator Development Programmes (10 Series)
These programmes are concerned with the development of teachers, school managers, and parents as participants in the education process. Not surprisingly, teacher development is a major priority, and 80 percent of the programmes focus on this as a goal. Most programmes were developed in the Learn ’n Live period, and aim to support teachers within the new educational dispensation. One series focuses on school management. Although it is presently the only one of its kind, it does comprise forty programmes(This is one of two teacher development series that comprise forty programmes. The other is concerned with teaching methods. The remaining series comprise between four and thirteen programmes each.). Another series targets parents as well as teachers, and deals with issues that can affect the establishment of a culture of learning: school governance, funding, and socio-economic factors in education. The programme lists provide little information about the format of programmes in this category.

Programme Length, Language and Copyright
All of the programmes vary in length, which has implications for whether or not they can be used synchronously in the classroom. Some are as short as two minutes while others are fully-fledged features or documentaries (running up to 127 minutes in one case). The length of programmes has implications for the ways in which they could best be used within the classroom context, particularly because most school lessons are limited to half an hour each. Since programmes are often most effective when they are integrated into a lesson, teachers may find it easiest to use shorter programmes. A programme of thirteen minutes or less provides an opportunity for the teacher to contextualize the programme, to show it, and to follow this up with questions, discussion, or other activities. In general, teachers would require a double lesson to integrate programmes longer than fifteen minutes into a lesson. Longer programmes may, however, have other uses. For example, they could be used as an introduction to a section of work, as a resource for project work, as a basis for homework, or for revision purposes. This would be the case particularly if programmes could be viewed after school in a media centre or a school library, or during free periods.

Most programmes are in English. A very small number are in Afrikaans, and hardly any are in African languages. Within the syllabus-related series, 82% of the programmes (76 out of 93) are in English. Fifteen are in Afrikaans and only two are in African languages. Of the latter, one teaches isiZulu and one Sepedi, but both are designed primarily for English and Afrikaans speakers. In the life-skills programmes, the same pattern manifests itself, with 84% of the programme series in English only (41 out of 49). Two series are in Afrikaans only, while one is available in English, Afrikaans, Sesotho, isiZulu, and Xhosa.(This is an animated series on the prevention of AIDS called Mont Luther Fights AIDS) The programmes directed towards teachers are all in English.

Most programmes target students at higher levels of study. Three quarters of the syllabus-related programme series (71 out of 93) are designed for use at secondary school level. Of these, two-thirds (47 out of 71) target students at senior secondary school (grades ten to twelve). Only nine of the syllabus-related programme series target primary school level students, with five aimed at senior primary level and four at junior primary level. Two programmes target students in the Foundation Phase. In nine series, the target groups could not be determined on the basis of available information. Furthermore, most of the life-skills programming seem to target viewers at secondary school level. Very few of the programmes seem to target younger children explicitly, although it is possible that the information base was misleading on this point.

The SABC appears to own the copyright on the overwhelming majority of programmes, which will facilitate their re-use in a new school service. However, this would need to be validated. Only four programmes were attributed to external agencies. The copyright on one is owned by the Handspring Trust for Puppetry in Education, another by Channel Four, while two other television programmes, which were recently acquired, are still to be screened (copyright details were not available for these). It does not seem, therefore, that major costs will be incurred in making some of the acquired programming available to schools, since the vast bulk of the programming is owned by the SABC.

Potential Use
All programmes, whether made before or during the Learn ’n Live period, have the potential to be used in structured learning contexts. In reviewing programme information, a range of uses comes to mind. While programmes would need to be carefully evaluated prior to such use, the following applications could be considered:
•    Programmes could provide teachers with new ideas or angles within a particular field or subject;
•    Programmes could be used as an information resource for project work;
•    Many programmes (particularly some of the life-skills programmes) could be used to teach English language and communication skills, and could provide a basis for developing listening skills, comprehension ability, and language skills across the curriculum;
•    The Zulu series (Siyafunda), the Northern Sotho series (Dumelang) and some of the Afrikaans communicative programmes could be used in second-language teaching contexts;
•    Some of the topical programmes present a range of points of view, and could be used, for example, to stimulate debate and discussion, script writing, essays, or arguments;
•    Some programmes (both syllabus-related and life-skill oriented) could be used to introduce new fields of learning or to motivate for the study of more abstract subjects by illustrating the application of theory to practice (in the fields of science and mathematics, for example);
•    Some of the more formal material could be used as a basis for revision; and
•    A great deal of material could be used to support independent study, provided appropriate learning support and support material was available.

Educational television has been through a revolution in the last year. The Department of Communication committed more than R65 million to educational television, which set out to underpin a culture of learning and teaching in an entertaining way.(SABC Education Television. (1998). Press Release May 1988)

SABC Education Television describes its strategic vision in 1998 as part of a partnership to ‘launch a schools broadcast service to support the introduction of the new curriculum and teacher training.(SABC Education Television. (1998). Press Release May 1988)’ In terms of this vision, it is necessary to understand the research activities conducted by SABC Education Television to support this. The strengths and weaknesses of these activities and systems will impact on the implementation of this service. Research processes within any organisation are powerful tools, which, if used effectively, can inform the strategic vision, transformation, and evaluation of organizational outputs and activities. Research and development systems are therefore of critical importance to the successful functioning of an organization.

The public broadcaster has a broadcasting research unit, which is a support service for all departments and production teams. SABC Education Television, like other units, pays a standard fee for the research information provided by this unit. SABC Education Television is only one of many clients, and is provided with generic information on broadcasting, budgets, research agencies, signal distribution, and so on. The relationship between Education Television and the research unit is linear, and research expertise is seen as located within the latter. In response to the need for educational considerations to be incorporated into the research process, however, SABC Education Television has also appointed a staff member dedicated to commissioning and coordinating its own research activities. Educational Television does not conduct any of its own research, but outsources it to research agencies.

The Education Television unit classifies its research into four categories:

•    Strategic research;
•    Environment scan;
•    Pre-production research; and
•    Evaluation or post-broadcast research.

Research activities in SABC Education Television have involved commissioning several research projects over the last 18 months. The table below is extracted from a document provided by SABC Education Television’s Research Coordinator.

Several of the above-mentioned research reports were reviewed during the course of this research process. Reports on research projects conducted or commissioned by the SABC are as informative for what they do not say as what they do. Two issues requiring further research attention are the development of an educational understanding of how programmes are used and an understanding of learning benefits for listeners or viewers. These two issues are highlighted because it is clear from this review process that insufficient information was provided about this in the evaluation research reports. In general, the evaluation research commissioned did not appear to include an examination of the impact of programmes in terms of what viewers or listeners learnt.

The Importance of Programme Briefs
Programme briefs are an important tool for developing and implementing educational broadcasts; and thus critical to the success of educational broadcasting evaluation processes. Programme briefs contain information about a number of components of educational broadcasting that producers need to take into account when producing programmes. Programme briefs typically include statements about:

•    The aims of a programme or series;
•    Themes to be covered;
•    The target audience;
•    The duration and frequency of episodes making up a series (where applicable); and
•    The chosen format and intended outcomes.

SABC Education Television programme briefs reviewed, in general, did not include information about potential uses of programmes. There are possibly two reasons for this. First, in its initial two years of activity (1996-1998), SABC Education Television mainly concerned itself with getting programmes out on air and with establishing a new profile for its service. While the unit was concerned with issues of educational impact, it did not have the capacity or means to put in place the necessary support for optimal use of programmes. Second, because most South African schools do not own playback equipment, such as audiocassette or videocassette recorders, SABC Education Television decided to focus on delivery of a home-based service. Because predicting or monitoring actual use of a programme within homes is very difficult, SABC Education Television may have omitted or played down concerns about programme use in its briefs.

When however, programme briefs did make reference to programme use, the conceptualization of ‘use’ was poor. Only five programmes in the full array of programme briefs published in 1996 included reference to ‘use’, and, in all instances, were framed in a particular way. For example:

These programmes are designed both to be accessed outside school hours and for use in classrooms. ... They are intended as supplementary curriculum-related learning resources and are intended to support, not replace, teachers.
Primary audience: students aged (specified differently in each brief) or in distance education programmes, with an emphasis on disadvantaged communities.
Secondary audience: teachers wanting to improve or revise their own (specified) skills and/or develop their (specified) teaching skills.

These programme briefs suggest it should be possible for teachers to integrate the programmes into classroom activity in ways that support their teaching strategies and the curricula within which they are working. They also suggest that individual students and teachers should be are able to use the programmes to improve their skills independently, presumably while listening to or viewing the broadcast at home. No suggestions are provided to explain how teachers and students are supposed to use the programme to achieve these goals. Consequently, use is not a central element of the producer’s contractual responsibility.

Like most broadcasters, the SABC is concerned with providing quality broadcasts, but quality alone does not ensure that a programme will have positive educational impact. The impact of a programme depends, among other things, on the context in which it is introduced and on the provision of support strategies to enhance learning. Concerns with programme quality and impact are both important, but it is clear that SABC Education Television needs to focus on the educational impact of programmes. Quality is the domain of the production team, while the learning context is the domain of the personnel at the school or learning institution within which the programme will be used. Thus the impact of future broadcasts will need to be enhanced by materials that enable teachers and students to use the broadcast material better. For this reason, we have developed detailed proposals for the SABC in this regard, which are contained in chapter twelve.

Programme ‘Uses’
Programme briefs did indicate specific learning outcomes that the programme was intended to support. But there appears to be some confusion between ‘outcomes’ and ‘programme use’. It is necessary to clarify these two concepts, and identify uses for television and radio programming. Here, we place focus on use by individuals and by students and teachers within the classroom. Examples are provided for how some forms of use might more effectively support learning processes.

Individuals do not all ‘use’ programmes in the same way or for the same purposes, while individual use also implies more than viewing or listening to a programme. Even if individuals are watching or listening to programmes at their leisure, a programme can be useful if individuals draw something from it that they are able to use in other contexts.

The Social Surveys’ report on Zoom-My Future (broadcast as part of the Take-5 platform), suggested that many respondents felt that programme material was too general and therefore not of any real use to them. Some respondents stated:

It is not detailed enough. We need to know [what] universities offer what courses specifically.
It’s quite good, but it should be more informative, in terms of requirements. If we can have information like telephone numbers so that we will look into it further, because we need those things…They are going to help us get where we are going.

Similar types of comments were made about the BBC series Get The Grammar, which formed part of the same study. According to Social Survey’s draft research report, some respondents stated that Get The Grammar covered material with which they were already familiar. But the respondents did recognize that the programme was potentially useful for revision purposes, as well as for younger children. For example:

I can watch it for revision, especially if I’m writing an English test.

As has been suggested, individual students using programmes as part of a structured learning programme (for example, distance education programmes) would use broadcast programmes more systematically than individuals listening or viewing for general or recreational purposes. However, the structured educational use of a programme is still dependent upon its mediation by a teacher or by a set of core learning materials.

As with individual use, the use of programmes within a school context takes many different forms, some of which are better able to facilitate learning than others. Briefly, some of the more common uses of broadcast programmes within a school context include:

• Playing a television or radio programme to a classroom of learners in order to keep learners occupied during a teacher’s absence. Depending on the quality of the programme, students may use it as an information base or as a tool for changing their ideas about a particular topic. Without any further structured interaction around the programme, it is unlikely to facilitate learning in any substantial way.

• Using programmes to fill gaps in the curriculum. For example, if teachers are themselves unable to complete a specific range of topics because of time constraints or because they lack the necessary skills, a suitable programme could be used to introduce material to students. This type of use is unlikely to facilitate learning effectively, but may merely acquaint viewers or listeners with a few general ideas about the topic.

• Programmes mediated by the teacher or educator. Programmes used in this way are much more likely to assist in learning processes, provided that the teacher has the skills to use the material effectively. These skills include:
  •    provision of an appropriate context for the introduction of the resource;
  •    skills to enable students to interact with the programme at different points;
  •    skills to identify and draw on sections which best support attainment of learning outcomes; and
  •    Skills to develop activities in which the ideas, skills and orientations can be further explored either individually or cooperatively.

• Using radio and television programmes as learning resources. Radio and television programmes can be used as learning resources, which:
  •    introduce or motivate new areas or topics in the learning programme;
  •    are reference materials for project work;
  •    provide students with the opportunity to revise learned content or skills;
  •    illustrate the application of theory to practice;
  •    contextualize learning;
  •    stimulate debate around different points of view; and
  •    form a basis for developing language and communication skills (for example, using programmes in listening or comprehension activities or as a basis for developing different types of writing).

Supporting ‘Outcomes’
The shift to outcomes-based education (OBE) means that educational broadcasting productions will need to pay attention to specific and general outcomes identified for various phases in the formal schooling system. The OBE approach defines an outcome as an

inclusive term, referring to everything learnt, including social and personal skills, learning how to learn, concepts, knowledge, understanding, methodologies, values, attitudes and so on, and including both intended and unintended outcomes.(Department of Education. 1996)

Educational broadcasting programmes intended to support outcomes-based teaching or learning will need to state explicitly what support they offer to attainment of specific outcomes, as well as the learning areas from which they have been derived. Certain forms of use better support the attainment of specific outcomes. Hence, the relationship between programme use and outcome is an essential part of the production and/or research commissioning brief. The list of possible types of classroom use indicates clearly the links between programme use and supporting learning outcomes. A critical factor in the link between ‘use’ and ‘outcome’ is the teacher’s ability to integrate a programme into teaching and learning processes. Ultimately it is this factor which largely determines whether or not a programme – in its varied uses – has positive impact and supports attainment of a learning outcome.

From the review of evaluation research reports, it is clear that SABC Educational Television must attend to the following issues:
•    The importance of evaluation in the overall research and production activities of SABC Education;
•    The importance of educational broadcasting evaluations, and thus a shift towards commissioning evaluation research that considers more than only broadcasting factors such ‘target audience’ or ‘programme appeal’;
•    Links between use, outcomes and educational impact;
•    Ways in which different types of use at home or in the classroom, impact on and enhance learning outcomes;
•    Ways in which students and teachers can be guided towards more effective use of programmes; and
•    The critical roles of support services, such as print support for teachers and students.

The extent to which SABC Education has successfully developed capacity and understanding of the above can be ascertained from a review of subsequent programme briefs and research commissioning briefs. It is recommended, therefore, that SABC Education continuously review its production and research commissioning processes. In doing this, it will continue to move beyond superficial considerations of programme success as a broadcasting outcome towards consideration of educational impact. Human resource strategies, such as professional development of SABC Education staff, can then be based on a well-focused starting point from which to build capacity, awareness of, and knowledge about the critical role of educational evaluation processes.

Period One
Only limited print support accompanied certain programmes produced before February 1997. According to the catalogue of formal educational material examined, the only print support available was:

•    A workbook accompanying the Dumelang series;
•    The workbooks accompanying the Siyafunda series;
•    A Wordpower Dictionary and Fun Book; and
•    Help-U-Science Study guides.

Period Two
Since February 1997, two main types of print support have been developed:

•    Information distributed to schools about what is being put on air and when. The television publicity material provides a brief synopsis of programmes, as well as times and channel of the broadcast. The 1998 brochure contained some brief guidelines on how teachers might use programmes in the course of their work. The radio schedules do not contain details of programmes on a day-by-day basis. Rather, the schedules indicate which radio slots feature educational programmes, listing the content on a generic basis (for example, curriculum support or youth and vocational guidance). Listeners tune in to find out exactly what topics are being covered on each day.
•    Print support for Dumani (a series for children between three and nine years) was carried on a weekly basis on the Sowetan.(The same strategy was adopted with Buang, a series and campaign on the Labour Relations Act, in which print support was published on a weekly basis in the Mail & Guardian)

One way in which we can assess the extent to which SABC Education is likely to support students and teachers is to examine the systems which compile, package, promote, and distribute audio and videocassette copies of educational broadcasts. Audio and videocassettes are important educational resources, and it is likely that, as awareness of a school service grows, students, parents, and teachers may place orders for cassettes intended for asynchronous use. Descriptions of SABC Education radio and television production processes are briefly described to contextualize the systems of compilation, packaging, promotion, and distribution.

SABC Education Radio
Historically, educational programming was centralized in Johannesburg and produced by Safritel. These programmes would then be sent to regional radio stations for broadcasting. This caused some tension, as regional radio stations resented the approach and, in particular, their exclusion from production processes and from the quality of programming they were expected to broadcast. Against this background, SABC recognized the need for decentralized production of educational programming. To assist with this, SABC Education Radio was established as a coordinating unit to manage decentralized production process. It was established in 1996 and the first educational programme developed in January 1997.(Based on information obtained from an interview with David Moloto held on 15^th July 1998 at the SABC Radiopark. All information mentioned on support mechanisms was obtained from the same interview.)

At present, SABC Radio consists of ten regional radio stations, each with its own educational advisor and producer. An executive producer situated in Johannesburg manages regional producers and advisors, and the executive producer is part of the central unit, which comprises an educational advisor and five producers. If an educational programme is to be developed, a workshop is organized and various ‘stakeholders’ invited to participate. Participants sometimes include curriculum experts in the identified field, members of the Department of Education, or members of teacher organizations. This workshop is followed by the establishment of a working group, which is given responsibility for developing briefs in the identified areas. An educational advisor is appointed to scrutinize content and assist with interpreting the briefs for production purposes. The producer, however, is given full responsibility for the production process. In situations where conflict arises between producer and educational advisor, an executive producer is on hand to resolve the conflict. The executive producer is also responsible for approving briefs, coordinating production processes at various stations, and driving the entire production process. Briefs developed centrally serve only as guidelines, which individual radio stations may modify. When the need arises, stations may contract in the services of freelance producers or sometimes even commission independent production companies. This occurs through a tendering process. While the radio stations enjoy some degree of autonomy, their activities must, for purposes of coordination, be approved by the central unit. A formal policy guides the approval process.

Educational programmes are produced mainly for live broadcast and are not usually recorded for commercial purposes. SABC Education Radio reports that it has not attempted to create a school-based service, but schedules school-focused educational programming for broadcast in the afternoons or evenings. Master copies of all programmes are kept and may only be recorded and sold upon request. The copyright remains with the SABC, and unauthorized duplication or recording is prohibited.

Should someone wish to obtain a copy of a radio programme, then audiocassette copies of educational programmes are sold for about R20 each through the Radio Sales Department(Based on information obtained from an interview with David Moloto held on 15^th July 1998 at the SABC Radiopark. All information mentioned on support mechanisms was obtained from the same interview). SABC Radio has an Internet site called Sound Archives, which serves as a database for all important materials it produces, including Educational materials(Based on telephonic discussion with Francior (SABC Sound Archives) on 28^th July 1998) . Programmes on the site are classified, catalogued and indexed systematically to assist with retrieval processes(Information obtained from the website http://www.sabc.co.za/units/soundarc/sa-stor.htm accessed on 28 July 1998. The rest of the paragraph contains further information from the same website). Information contained in Sound Archives includes programmes broadcast in the past, past events, occasions, dramas, documentaries, and tributes. The system is being updated and upgraded onto the computer Natural Document Management (NDM) system (Further information on this regard can be obtained from Tamlin at (011) 714-4502). Master cassettes of all programmes are also located in the National Film and Sound Archives in Pretoria.(Further information on this regard can be obtained from Tamlin at (011) 714-4502) To order an audiocassette, one first has to telephone Sound Archives and identify the programme required. The customer will be given information regarding the date when the broadcast took place and the duration of the cassette. The customer is then referred to the Radio Programme Sales Department, which is responsible for dispatch. In addition to the information above, reasons for why the customer wishes to order the cassette will be required by the sales department. Based on this, the price for the cassette will be given. The customer will then have to send a facsimile to place an order.(Francior. op cit. )

SABC Education Television
Packaging of educational programmes onto videocassettes is not, and has not been, an area of focus for SABC Education Television(Based on information obtained from an interview Nicola Galombik, on 24^th July 1998 at the Broadcast Centre). The only packaging done in past years was by Safritel, which packaged a series rather than individual programmes. There is no marketing of educational videocassettes aside from an indication of a telephone number of the sales department at the end of some programme. At present, a videocassette for a specific series is only compiled if an order is placed by an individual customer.

To produce a programme, SABC Education Television commissions a working group that is responsible for developing a programme brief(Based on information obtained from an interview Nicola Galombik, on 24^th July 1998 at the Broadcast Centre). The process of developing briefs involves representatives from education departments, non-governmental organizations, teacher unions, executive producers, and internal producers(Based on a telephonic discussion with Vuyo Makhaya on the 29^th July 1998). The briefs indicate the target audience, the duration of the programme, and the goals or outcomes that the programme aims to achieve. Once briefs are finalized, they are handed to an independent producer who will work with a consultant. The consultant is normally an educator specializing in an identified area. The independent producer and consultant work to ensure fit between content and outcomes identified on the briefs(Based on a telephonic discussion with Vuyo Makhaya on the 29^th July 1998).

There is an internal video sales department staffed by two people, who are responsible for receiving calls, organizing duplication of programmes onto videocassette and sending cassettes to customers. Duplication is done from the master copies kept by producers of the different programmes. Compilation of master copies is done by the executive producer, who is also responsible for editing. No further editing takes place beyond that stage(Galombik N. Op cit). This sales department is mainly responsible for promoting sales of educational videocassettes(Based on a telephonic discussion with Bongiwe Radasi on 16^th July 1998.). Any other cassette that is not educational may be purchased from SABC Broadcast Enterprises. Each programme is packaged by the programme manager onto videocassette, which serves as the master copy for the SABC.

The sales department is also responsible for developing a catalogue of all available cassettes(Based on a telephonic discussion with Bongiwe Radasi on 16^th July 1998.). The cover page for the promotional catalogue is entitled Education for you(Catalogue compiled by SABC Education Programme Sales Department). It contains prices for educational materials like a Dumelang workbook, Siyafunda books and cassettes, Wordpower Level 11 Dictionary and Fun Book, and Help-U-Study guides. The catalogue has an index of contents arranged in alphabetical order. Each topic has the name of the resource displayed, target audience, names and descriptions of various episodes and the duration of the programme. A single videocassette (in VHS format) of three hours may contain thirteen episodes lasting thirteen minutes each. For example, a resource called Adult Basic Education costs R171.00. A programme on Health Hints is made up of 52 episodes. A VHS cassette of one hour contains 26 episodes and costs R79.80. The entire series of 52 episodes costs R159.60(Catalogue compiled by SABC Education Programme Sales Department). There are also catalogues from Broadcast Enterprises that are arranged in a similar way. Catalogues from Broadcast Enterprises are categorized into various topics, for example Mental Health, Education, or Health.(Catalogues obtained from Broadcast Enterprises)

When someone wishes to order a videocassette copy of a television broadcast, s/he is expected to send a facsimile order for a videocassette. The facsimile must include the customer’s name, surname, physical and postal address, contact numbers, programmes title, episode number, and date on which the programme was shown on television. Individual customers must first deposit money into the SABC’s bank account, and a receipt of payment must be sent by facsimile to the SABC before a cassette can be posted or collected. In the case of organizations, a facsimile with the same information must be send to the SABC. A videocassette may be posted or collected immediately, and payment must be within thirty days. Facsimiles requesting videocassette copies are forwarded to the SABC Sales Unit.(Catalogues obtained from Broadcast Enterprises their facsimile number is (011) 714 5219)

SABC Education Television states that it has experienced some problems with developing videocassette resources. It lists these as:

•    The problem of inadequate resources in schools limits access and effectiveness of television as an educational resource.
•    Teachers in some quarters feel threatened by the use of television, because they perceive it as replacing them.
•    There is no cooperation between SABC Education Radio and Television in terms of advertising each other’s educational programmes. Television has to pay for all advertising of educational programmes on radio.
•    Schools are no longer in a position to purchase videocassettes due to budget cuts.
•    The use of pamphlets has been successful only if printed in the home language of readers. Research has , for example, shown that Zulu speakers do not read pamphlets written in Xhosa; conversely, however, and sometimes people hold negative attitudes towards their own languages.
•    It has been very difficult and expensive to broadcast educational programmes during prime time. Road shows and advertisements on taxis and buses are effective, but very expensive.

What is clear from the descriptions of SABC Education Radio and Television’s compilation, packaging and distribution activities is that the SABC has not maximized its potential to make educational programmes accessible to schools. Understandably this is complicated by financial constraints and a lack of human capacity, but the lack of support, cooperation, and coordination between Radio and Television seriously limits SABC Education’s capacity to make its programmes known to the public. To improve the situation, the following is recommended:

•    Marketing of educational programmes on both radio and television during prime time;
•    Effective marketing of audio and videocassettes using a range of technologies and media such as radio broadcasts, print catalogues and the Internet; and
•    Making cassettes available in video shops at local levels.

These ideas are developed further in chapter twelve.

SABC Education Radio
Promotion of SABC Education Radio resources is carried out by a marketing and sales department, which is responsible for general promotion of programmes. This department is responsible for developing print materials to promote programmes. SABC Education Radio reports that use of print material has been minimal due to lack of support from newspaper organizations(Based on the information obtained from an interview with Fakkir Hassen on 28^th July 1998). The emphasis of print promotion has also been on entertainment rather than education, because education is perceived to be boring. Limited allocation of financial resources to promotion has also limited promotional activities. Of the R12 million allocated to SABC Radio, only R5 000 was used for marketing in the last financial year. Part of the promotion strategy has been to provide radios to schools, but many of these were stolen. Aside from this, individual stations are responsible for promoting their programmes through use of repeat advertisements during broadcasts(Moloto D. op cit ).

SABC Education Television
SABC Education Television uses what they refer to as ‘above-the-line and ‘below-the-line’ marketing(Based on information obtained from an interview with Danie Swart on 20^th July. The rest of the paragraph contains information from the same interview). ‘Below-the-line’ marketing refers promotional activities, and involves contacting individuals or groups within the target audience, and distributing posters and pamphlets to them at public places. For example, posters may be posted on taxis and buses and, pamphlets may be distributed at shops or train stations. Merchandise like printed T-shirts, caps and pencil cases are also produced as part of the ‘below-the-line’ marketing strategy. These are normally used distributed during road shows. This strategy was, for example, used for an Easter campaign in Grahamstown.

‘Above-the-line’ marketing, this refers to ensuring publication of publicity articles in newspapers such as the Sowetan and Mail And Guardian. In addition to these publications, programmes are publicized in Intercom, an internal SABC publication Other ‘above-the-line’ strategies include sitting on the editorial board of TV Talk, and promoting educational television during prime time radio and television broadcasts.

Promotion of different programmes is reportedly influenced to a great extent by the nature of the programme. For curriculum based programmes, schools are targeted. Articles are placed in magazines such as The Teacher, School Talk and other educator magazines, while distribution of pamphlets or schedules to schools is another strategy. This is made possible as a result of the database obtained from the Human Science Research Council, which provides addresses for 27 000 schools. Direct mailing to schools is reported to be the most successful strategy for distribution, especially now that the database has been updated.

Inserts of a summary of the Television series Buang in the Sowetan also proved to be very successful. SABC Education Television believes that it is most effective if it maintains control over materials distribution, rather than relying on others. For example, when the Department of Communication was asked to distribute materials to schools around Mmabatho, this was not done. SABC Education Television further believes that schools nowadays are overwhelmed with organizations that are targeting them for various purposes. Thus there are no guarantees that print materials displayed in schools will be given the attention necessary to make them successful. SABC materials, therefore, may be overshadowed by other promotional strategies.(Based on information obtained from an interview with Danie Swart on 20^th July. The rest of the paragraph contains information from the same interview)

A further promotion strategy relies on Tricom, which runs competitions in schools and has addresses for about 33 000 schools categorized into various levels. This allows the SABC to be more targeted in its approach. The use of drop off schedules has made it possible for SABC Education Television to receive an almost 25% response rate from reply cards sent to schools. Responses were obtained from some individuals who do not have television sets, but who watch television in friends’ homes or in community centres. These people have requested print support material.(Based on information obtained from an interview with Danie Swart on 20^th July. The rest of the paragraph contains information from the same interview)

Educational programmes are currently promoted under the Learn ‘n Live logo, but a new design and logo Education for You has been developed. Research has shown that the new name and logo are more successful and appealing than their predecessors. Learn ‘n Live will be gradually phased out and replaced with Education for You. A Learn ‘n Live promotion package is mailed to schools three times a year, which includes print pamphlets. The marketing unit also has a research and planning unit, which helps in monitoring and evaluating educational programmes. This process involves consultation with stakeholders and funding organizations, although, in some instances, producers of the programmes have undertaken their own research. The producer of Educator Express has, for example, used this approach.

Review of SABC Education Promotional Strategies
Based on a review of SABC Education Radio and Television promotion strategies, the following trends emerge:

•    Educational Radio and Television both believe that they provide important potential educational support, and that producing educational resources is something worth doing well.
•    Both believe that marketing should be holistic, and that mixed media approaches, employing newspapers, television and radio, should be used.
•    Both units believe that promotional marketing should be campaign-based where possible, with all marketing channels brought on board and appropriate partnerships formed.
•    Both believe that Radio and Television should work closely together.
•    Both find road shows, conferences, and face-to-face contact with target audiences to be successful, particularly when prizes, competitions, and other incentives are incorporated.
•    The inclusion of educational advisers and community representatives in production and promotion strategies is supported in principle by both units.
•    Both recognize the need for wider consultation, monitoring, and research.
•    Both realize that better print companion support should be provided in future.
•    Both state that a resource base of tapes (radio and videocassette) and print support with special binders should be built up.
•    Better points of distribution should be established and both units recognize that there should be easier access, to cassettes and print support for potential viewers or listeners at minimal cost.
•    Both admit that there is a need for improved distribution for mail shots.
•    Both units state that having eleven official languages, as well as budget and capacity are important constraints to promotional strategies.
•    Differences from province to province are marked, and this is a constraint in terms of promoting educational services, taking account of different cultures, views, expectations, capacity, and resources (or lack thereof).
•    Both units are trying to increase the number of ‘interactive’ programmes, using phone-ins or panel discussions.
•    Both Radio and Television recognize the importance of, and encourage good relationships with newspaper organizations;
•    Both also realise that they have access to powerful media for communication purposes.
•    Both recognize that future strategies could include working with a reverse-charge telephone information service, Internet web sites and other technologies.

Some important differences do however exist between SABC Education Radio and Television. These are:

•    Recognition that radio uses auditory medium, while television is primarily visual. There are different strengths and weaknesses intrinsic to these media.
•    Television currently has a marketing and a research and development department supporting its work. Radio is still setting up these departments, and hence has less support than Television.
•    Television is inclined to be regarded as more glamorous, with the result that Radio is inclined to feel overshadowed.
•    Radio serves all eleven language groups on a weekly basis across ten regional stations very effectively. On the other hand, Television uses a more integrated approach which tries to cross cultural barriers, using multi-lingual approaches and multi-cultural themes.
•    Educational Radio has a noticeably strong negative heritage to overcome, lingering from its predecessor, Radio Education, which was driven by political ideologies dominant in the apartheid regime. This has required a name change to Educational Radio, but the legacy is still quite real for radio station managers.
•    Radio and Television adopt different approaches to educational programming. Radio is more orientated towards ‘edutainment’, emphasizing life-skills acquisition. It does not offer school-based curriculum support or focus on specific target groups. Television provides both curriculum-based support and wider audience life skills, as well as adult education and educare. Some of its programmes target specific interest groups and ages.

Clearly however, SABC Education Television has not used promotional activities and resources at its disposal to their fullest potential. SABC Education Radio, which has not yet set up the necessary systems for promotion, is especially guilty of not promoting its broadcasts. Given that it only spent R5 000 on promotion in 1997, SABC Education Radio must seriously consider its capacity for, and commitment to adequate and appropriate promotion.

South African educational broadcasting is not the exclusive domain of the SABC. Several private and non-governmental initiatives exist, and have been variously evaluated. These evaluation reports contribute to our understanding of important lessons for any South African educational broadcast initiative. This section describes some of these initiatives and evaluation trends.(Research conducted specifically on the use of broadcasting to support school education in South Africa is limited. For this reason, this literature review has been expanded to include analysis of documentation on a broader range of educational areas)

OLSET: English In Action
OLSET is one of a few South African Non-Governmental Organizations that developed educational radio programmes designed for synchronous use in the classroom. The intention of the programmes was to develop English language, communication skills, and mathematics among students in foundation and intermediate phases. The programmes were typically of 25 minutes duration, and were accompanied by non-broadcast support such as print support for teachers and students and teacher training on how programmes were to be used.

In 1995, OLSET broadcast its programmes via SABC Radio 2000. This station is not generally familiar to the primary target audience and many focus groups complained that they were unable to locate the station. According to OLSET Director, Gordon Naidoo, some 35 000 students used the programme series during 1995. OLSET had to pay for airtime used, and ultimately the organization’s funders objected to this. In 1996, OLSET negotiated half-hour broadcast slots with three African language radio stations, Motsweding FM, Ukhozi FM, and Umhlobo Wenene FM. This continued into 1997, but was not evaluated. At present, OLSET is negotiating with Ukhozi FM and Umhlobo Wenene FM for further broadcast time.

The use of radio broadcasting was also of concern, given the availability of radio in schools. OLSET, subsequent to planning its programmes, discovered that the primary target audience had little or no access to the radio. OLSET was, therefore, forced to switch over to using audiocassettes.

Evaluations of OLSET’s Radio Broadcast Initiatives
In his evaluation of English in Action (EIA), Charles Potter argued that curriculum development expertise was essential to producing resources aimed at successful teaching and learning. OLSET employed external consultants as curriculum advisers and evaluators, so that a structured EIA curriculum could be successfully implemented at grade one and two(Potter, C. (1991). An Evaluation of ‘English in Action’: Executive Summary. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand. p.1). The success of this project was that, in its curriculum development process, it set up constant interaction between teachers and producers of EIA. The EIA project showed that the process of curriculum development and consultation is not something that can be achieved quickly, but requires time and energy so that producers are regularly briefed about curricular matters.

OLSET enhanced its radio broadcasts and audiocassettes with print support. This multi-media format allowed students and teachers to interact with the radio or cassette by following instructions and workbooks designed to invite interaction. Potter stressed that the print support needed to be designed to allow teachers greater space to teach(Potter, C. 1991). It is very important that educational broadcasts support classroom teaching, and thus not serve to marginalize the role and responsibilities of teachers who facilitate and mediate learning. Poorly designed educational broadcast material has the potential to de-skill teachers, because it leaves the whole lesson in the hands of the radio teacher.(Mashishi, L. op cit. p.7)

With regard to teacher training, OLSET appointed an educator development coordinator to oversee the implementation of an INSET curriculum designed by OLSET national office staff members and the regional coordinators. Potter reports that OLSET developed good relations between its staff in the field and teachers in the classroom. This has been especially beneficial because OLSET materials are perceived by teachers to help them perform their functions more effectively, and OLSET staff members are perceived to be helpful, hardworking, and to provide a high standard of support to the schools and teachers.(Potter, C. 1991)

The issue of language was also critical to OLSET’s initiatives. The OLSET project allowed teachers to switch over to the home language of students, and students were, in turn, allowed to use their home language to answer questions posed. While, in principle, this offered teachers and students flexibility, Mashishi argued that teachers of the OLSET project too often used an African language to provide explanations. She recommended that teachers be given guidelines on the extent to which they are allowed to use home languages and also that there should be uniformity on the use of home languages in EIA programmes. (Mashishi, L. op cit. p.3-4)

OLSET used external evaluators who identified certain weakness, and suggested ways in which to intercept and correct them early in the broadcast implementation phase, thus ensuring that additional programmes were more effective. Early formative evaluation also allowed OLSET producers to intervene in situations where teachers needed guidance and support.

The various evaluations of OLSET’s English broadcast initiatives suggested that:

•    Grade one students exposed to the EIA radio lessons (evaluated on cassette) performed on average 20 percent better on an English receptive vocabulary test than did a comparative group of students.
•    Farm school students exposed to the programmes improved the most relative to urban and rural schools. Project farm schools improved by 21 percent, urban schools by 17 persent and rural schools by 14 percent.

Evaluation of OLSET’s mathematics broadcast initiatives suggested that:

•    The use of English in the mathematics programmes restricted use among students who did not use English as a home language.
•    The content of the programmes must be linked to the curriculum. In particular, cognisance must be taken of local, district, and school resources to ensure a match between programme needs and the school/community context.
•    Teachers’ participation is essential in the pre-broadcast phase. This prevents teachers and students from becoming alienated from the programmes/audio tapes.
•    Few teachers recommended broadcasting the programmes. All preferred audiocassette-based programmes, distributed with print support, so that teachers can integrate resources into their classroom teaching processes.
•    Drama should be used to enhance students’ ability to link mathematics learnt at school with their everyday experiences and other disciplines through cross-curricular activities.

The mathematics evaluation concluded that:

Audiocassettes and radio can be powerful tools in upgrading classrooms, providing teachers consider that they ‘own’ these tools. This ownership extends to all aspects of the process – production, dissemination and formative evaluations. (Potter, C. 1991)

The evaluation further recommended that use of radio and audiocassettes be extended beyond revision of taught concepts. Radio and audiocassettes could be used in teacher development, increasing mathematical knowledge in the public domain, and providing forums in which teachers, pupils, and parents discuss topics such as curriculum innovation, innovative school projects, and the role of resources in teaching and learning.

OLSET’s efforts to reach classrooms via radio are hampered in some cases by the perception that radio broadcasts are too niche-oriented. The format does not fit with the perceptions of some station personnel about what makes for good radio.

Handspring Trust For Puppetry In Education: Spider’s Place
Spider’s Place is a mixed-media primary science education package produced by the Handspring Trust for Puppetry in Education and the Primary Science Programme Trust. Spider’s Place stimulated students’ interest in science through the use of examples provided in comics and videos to illustrate various scientific concepts(Perold, H. 1994). Spider’s Place demonstrates that it is possible to develop learning resources that meet the multilingual and multicultural needs of South African classrooms. These learning resources introduce an African perspective into the classroom, a perspective quite different from the Eurocentric view presented in many textbooks.(Perold, H. 1994)

The provision of non-broadcast support for teachers and students has been identified as an important factor in the success of the initiative. Spider’s Place attempted to develop print support that was not overly theoretical. It incorporated ‘examples’ in its print support as an effective way of getting the attention of students. Its print support was developed to complement its video. It is, therefore, one of the few initiatives which successfully uses print to support students’ understanding and retention of its audio-visual resources.

Developing teachers’ capacity to use audio or visual programmes is a critical consideration. Most teachers who used Spider’s Place, used the video as passive input, and did not provide any mediation during screening (although there were cases where teachers interrupted the screening to provide explanation). The challenge for producers of Spider’s Place was to obtain the correct balance between developing programmes that allow teachers space to intervene and developing quality materials that intervene in the learning process. Despite being a mixed media package, which includes a video, a comic, and a workbook, it was found that most students and teachers preferred to use only the comic. One of the reasons offered for the restricted use of the learning materials was that:

There is generally no culture of using audio-visual resources to augment the learning process.(Perold, H. 1994)

Much research identifies the need for teachers to be supported in the use of broadcast media in the classroom. The experience gained from Spider’s Place showed that:

Teachers require intensive orientation in the use of the new materials. That is, teachers need to understand the goals of the innovation, the approach to science teaching and learning as well as the conception of science and scientific knowledge embedded in the materials.(Perold, H. 1994)

Student participation and interaction with the resource is also critical. Spider’s Place, more than most other South African initiatives, encouraged independent learning among students. According to one teacher, Spider’s Place was an effective resource because:

It takes out the boredom. It encourages children to find the knowledge they need themselves. It reduces the amount of control and discipline required because children are involved (in the story). Children like entertainment and freedom. Children become more relaxed and involved.(Perold, H. 1994)

Like the OLSET initiative, the producers of Spider’s Place had to deal with the realities of multi-lingualism. The challenge was to develop resources that would allow teachers and students the opportunity to communicate in African languages. While English was most often used with the science materials there was limited but none-the-less effective use of bilingual (English-Xhosa) communication when teachers and students either explained or enquired about a core idea or concept(Perold, H. 1994).

When audio or audio-visual resources are developed, instructional design processes are critically important. Instructional design processes need to ensure that difficult and unfamiliar concepts can be explained by resource itself. Spider’s Place has been successful in this regard.

Decision about what types of media and technology to use in production and delivery of educational resources must take cognisance of the availability of resources such as electricity, television sets, radios, and video and cassette recorders in schools and communities. The implementers of Spider’s Place found themselves challenged by the lack of resources in many schools. Handspring, like OLSET, learnt firsthand the importance of conducting a needs analysis of resources and equipment within the target audience’s homes or schools before embarking on programme production.

Handspring Trust relied on eight organizations in its formative evaluation of Spider’s Place.(Perold, H. 1994) The result of this was that they were able to provide teachers with appropriate guidance and support (in the form of workshops). To ensure that their resources met the particular needs of the target audience, pilot or pre-test studies were used and provided important information for further development of the resources.

The Learning Channel
The Learning Channel consists of a series of television broadcasts aimed at supporting senior secondary students. The Learning Channel is funded by a corporate company, and provides some print support in national newspapers. The Learning Channel consists of programmes aimed at supporting among others, grades ten, eleven and twelve mathematics, biology, English, chemistry, and physical science students.

The Learning Channel programmes use the traditional ‘chalk-and-talk’ approach. Research suggests that students are ambivalent about this approach. William Smith’s presentation of mathematics is received positively by some, but the majority of teachers and students disapprove of his style of presentation. This is clear from the following comments about William Smith and the presenter of English programme:

I don’t like this classroom approach like William Smith (sic). Children are in school all day and that is enough for them. Too much causes them to develop an anti-school feeling and all that is associated with it.
There is this little lady on television - I never see her face and I don’t know who she is. She is always busy scribbling something on a paper and you cannot even read what she’s writing - no I don’t think she is appealing(Qualitative Research Report: Tshishimani. op cit. pp. 18-19).

Some attempt has, however, been made to improve the presentation style in this programme. Currently, programmes are broadcast during school hours, and live telephone calls are fielded to allow the presenter to interact with a few students in the classroom.

Ulwazi Radio Project
Ulwazi Radio develops a range of educational broadcasts aimed at general target audiences, intended to teach literacy skills. Ulwazi developed print support to complement its radio programmes and to support a learner’s understanding and retention of broadcast learning material. Ulwazi’s print support was found to have successfully supported students’ understanding and retention of its radio programmes. Ulwazi has also experimented more freely with format and style in its radio productions, with great success. Instead of using presenters or ‘experts’, Ulwazi employs the voices and opinions of ordinary people to discuss issues, and its success is related to the fact that the target audience identifies with the people involved in the programme(Evaluating the Ulwazi Radio Project. p.3).

IUPHC: Soul City
Some South African initiatives have responded to the need to develop resources that raise awareness in the general public about health or voter education issues. One such initiative was that of the Institute of Urban Primary Health Care (IUPHC) which identified a need for certain aspects of health education to be delivered to the South African public. Before embarking on production of a programme, IUPHC commissioned CASE to conduct a pilot study on the baseline level of knowledge and attitudes to health issues(Samuels, T. 1997). The results of the pilot study enabled IUPHC to identify appropriate content for Soul City, and to develop content that:

•    was relevant to the target audience;
•    addressed a real need of the target audience; and
•    could be presented in an interesting and attractive manner.

Soul City consists of a mixed media package that provides information and education, to empower the general public, and to help them to make positive, informed decisions concerning their health. Soul City’s mixed media package consists of:

•    Television (a series of thirteen episodes of half an hour each);
•    Radio (a sixty part series of fifteen minute episodes); and
•    Newspaper (a 36-page serialized colour booklet incorporated in daily newspapers nationally, and issued simultaneously with the flighting of the television and radio series).(CASE. (1997). Let the Sky be the Limit, Soul City Evaluation Report. Johannesburg: CASE. p.2)

The success of Soul City was enhanced because it used drama to communicate its message. It was felt that drama is an appropriate format because it can capture people’s imagination(CASE. (1997). Let the Sky be the Limit, Soul City Evaluation Report. Johannesburg: CASE. p.2). Soul City’s effect was increased by complementing drama with entertainment. It allowed young and old to identify with the events and characters in the stories.

Soul City’s producers were able to develop a successful resource because they recognised, among other things, the importance of pilot studies, and formative and summative evaluations in the conceptualization and development processes.

Crossover Television: Facts of Life
Similar to the production process of Soul City, Crossover Television’s series, The Facts of Life, was developed after extensive research. Information generated by a formative evaluation provided the necessary feedback upon which the series could be adapted and edited as programmes unfolded.(De Castro et al. (1996). An Evaluation of the Crossover Television Series: The Facts of Life. Johannesburg: CASE. p. iii)

The Facts of Life also used a mixed media package consisting of television and radio programmes. It employed real case studies, dramatically represented and enhanced by the commentary of a young studio presenter. This was very effective for its target teenage audience, who identified with both the cases and the presenter. The Facts of Life used young actors and presenters to capture the interest of its target audience.

Curriculum Intervention
Curriculum intervention is common to many of these initiatives. In part, this is linked to the emphasis placed on curricular issues in a report submitted to the IBA by the Electronic Media in Education Forum (EME Forum). The EME Forum recommended that formal educational media programmes adhere to recognized curriculum development processes(EME Forum. 1994). The challenge remains to develop programmes in which curricular issues are conceptualized differently from traditional notions and integrated with the commitment to lifelong learning, rather than just a specific syllabus.

Target Audiences
These various initiatives have targeted a wide range of audiences, from school-going students and out-of-school youth to ABET learners. Decisions about target audience were in some ways influenced by the producers’ decisions about content of the programme.

Most of these initiatives share some difficulty around the language used. Roots Research S.A. has argued that subject matter be made available in various vernacular languages(Qualitative Research Report: Tshishimani. op cit. p. 15), but often funding and the fact that many schools choose English as a language of instruction mean that very few resources are developed in African languages.

The role of language in educational broadcasting is an important consideration. While research suggests that learning is enhanced by use of a learner’s home language, it is not always feasible or practical to provide formal language education via broadcast technologies. Research suggests, however, that home language instruction is a necessity in the lower grades, thus pointing to the importance of broadcasting in home languages if the target audience consists of children enrolled in grades one to grade three.

Decisions about Technologies and Media
Decisions about which technologies and media to use have been common to many of the evaluations of these initiatives. In Learning to Listen, Listening to Learn, Russell recommended the use of radio forums for the development of the quality of life of disadvantaged communities. He argued that communities can assemble in small groups and through interaction with the radio or audiocassettes, discussed topics of mutual interest that advance their communities(Russell, D. (Ed), 1992). In contrast, the EME Forum report warned against the use of radio forums because, in the past, these over-emphasized radio to the detriment of print, thus negatively impacting on the development of literacy and numeracy skills.

Access to Broadcasts
Another factor common to most of these initiatives is the challenge to develop resources intended for broadcast on radio and television and use in schools. The (limited) availability of resources such as electricity, television sets, radios, and video and cassette recorders in schools and communities is, at one level, quite daunting. Several NGOs have first hand experience of having to reconceptualize their products given the lack of televisions and radios in schools. These evaluations stress that needs analysis of resources and equipment within a target audience’s home or school must be undertaken before embarking on programme production.